Chapter 20 - Gene Expression Flashcards

1
Q

What is a mutation?

A

Change to the structure of quantity of DNA

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2
Q

What is a substitution mutation?

A

A base is switched for another

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3
Q

What are the three possibilities that can occur as the result of a substitution mutation?

A

A stop codon can be formed - the production of the polypeptide would be stopped
A non-functional protein is formed
No change

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4
Q

Why can deletion mutations be bad?

A

If they occur near the start of a polypeptide chain, all following codons will experience a frame shift = non-functional protein produced

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5
Q

What is an addition mutation?

A

Base randomly added to sequence

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6
Q

Why can addition mutations be bad?

A

If they occur near the start of a polypeptide chain, all following codons will experience a frame shift = non-functional protein produced

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7
Q

What is a base duplication?

A

One of the bases is repeated

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8
Q

What effect does a duplication mutation have?

A

Frame shift to the right

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9
Q

What is an inversion mutation?

A

A group of base sequences becomes separated and rejoins in the inverse order

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10
Q

What is a translocation mutation?

A

A group of bases becomes separated from the DNA sequence on one chromosome and is inserted into another

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11
Q

What are mutagenic agents?

A

Increase the frequency and likelihood of mutations

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12
Q

Examples of mutagenic agents

A

Ionising radiation

Chemicals

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13
Q

Why is ionising radiation a mutagenic agent?

A

Disrupts DNA structure

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14
Q

Why are chemicals mutagenic agents?

A

Alters DNA structure and interferes with transcription

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15
Q

What is cell differentiation?

A

Cell develops into a structure suited to the role it will carry out

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16
Q

How do cells specialise?

A

Only certain genes are expressed (turned on)

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17
Q

What are totipotent cells?

A

Can mature into any body cell

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18
Q

How are only some of the genes in a cell expressed?

A

Only part of the DNA in a cell is made into proteins needed to carry out a specialised function

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19
Q

In which ways does the cell prevent genes from being expressed?

A

Preventing transcription and translation

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20
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Can differentiate into other cells

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21
Q

What are embryonic stem cells?

A

Come from early embryos

Initially, they can differentiate into any type of cell

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22
Q

What are umbilical cord blood stem cells?

A

Similar to adult stem cells

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23
Q

What are placental stem cells?

A

Can develop into a limited number of cells

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24
Q

What are adult stem cells?

A

Specific to tissue or organ

Produce cells to repair and maintain tissues

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25
What are totipotent stem cells?
Found in early embryo, can differentiate into any cell
26
What are pluripotent stem cells?
Found in embryos, can differentiate into ALMOST any cell
27
Example of totipotent cells
Zygote
28
Example of pluripotent cells
Embryonic/fetal stem cells
29
What are multipotent stem cells?
Found in adults, can develop into limited number of cells
30
Examples of multipoint stem cells
Adult stem cells
31
What are unipotent stem cells?
Only differentiate into one cell, derived from multipotent stem cells
32
Examples of unipotent stem cells
Cardiomyocytes
33
How can pluripotent stem cells be used to treat disease?
Cells can be used to regrow damaged tissue (e.g. heart attack, osteoarthritis, type 1 diabetes)
34
How are induced pluripotent stem cells made?
Unipotent cells make body cells Body cells altered in lab so they take on characteristics of embryonic stem cells These are pluripotent stem cells
35
What are transcriptional factors?
Molecules that activate genes
36
Process of controlling gene expression by controlling transcription:
Transcriptional factors move from cytoplasm to nucleus TF binds to specific base sequence of DNA Initiates transcription mRNA and polypeptides produced
37
How can oestrogen activate a gene?
Diffuses through phospholipid bilayer into cytoplasm Binds to complementary receptor molecule on transcriptional factor Activates DNA binding site on TF by changing its shape TF enters nucleus and binds with complementary DNA Transcription is stimulated
38
What is epigenetics?
Provides explanations as to how environmental influences alter the genetic inheritance of offspring
39
What is the epigenome?
Chemical tags surrounding DNA and histones
40
What do epigenomes do?
Determine the shape of the DNA-histone complex
41
What is epigenetic silencing?
Keeps genes in tightly coiled environment so can't be read
42
Why are epigenomes influenced by environment?
They are flexible - change shape so genes are inactivated and activated
43
What is the genome?
All the genetic material in an organism
44
What technique is used to sequence DNA?
Whole-Genome Shotgun sequencing
45
What is Whole-Genome Shotgun sequencing?
Dividing DNA into smaller sections and then using algorithms to overlap repeating sequences to discover the genome
46
What is the proteome?
The range of proteins the body can produce
47
Why is it relatively easy to determine the proteome of prokaryotic organisms?
They have just one plasmid of DNA which isn't associated with proteins No introns
48
What is cancer?
A disease characterised by the uncontrollable growth of cells
49
What are the two types of tumour?
Benign and malignant
50
Which type of tumour can grow to a large size?
Both
51
Which type of tumour grows quickly?
Malignant
52
Which type of tumour has a normal looking nucleus?
Benign
53
Which type of tumour has cells that are well differentiated?
Benign
54
Which type of tumour lacks adhesion molecules?
Malignant
55
Which type of tumours surrounded by tissue?
Benign
56
Which type of tumour is more often life threatening?
Malignant
57
Which type of tumour often affects the whole body?
Malignant
58
Which type of tumour can normally be removed by surgery?
Benign
59
Which type of tumour frequently reoccurs after treatment?
Malignant
60
What are the two main genes involved in cancer?
Oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes
61
What are oncogenes?
Mutations of proto-oncogenes
62
What do proto-oncogenes do?
Stimulate a cell to divide when growth molecules attach to its cell membrane
63
What are the two reasons that a mutated proto-oncogene can be permanently activated?
The oncogene codes for growth factor = cell division | Receptor protein permanently activated
64
What do tumour suppressor genes do?
Limit cell division
65
Why does a woman's likelihood of developing breast cancer increase after menopause?
Increased levels of oestrogen
66
How can oestrogen cause breast cancer?
Binds to a gene that controls cell division and growth Activates gene Uncontrollable cell division occurs
67
Which gene, when mutated, leads to breast cancer?
BRCA1
68
How can hypomethylation lead to the formation of tumours?
Occurs in oncogenes and activates them
69
Describe the process by which hypermethylation of a tumour suppressor gene leads to cancer:
Hypermethylation occurs in promoter region of TSG TSG inactivated Transcription of promoter regions of TSG inhibited TSG inactivated Uncontrollable cell division = cancer
70
When will DNA be accessible by transcription factors?
The association of histones with DNA is weak so the two are loosely packed
71
What happens when DNA is accessed by transcription factors?
Creates mRNA which can activate gene
72
What impact does condensation have on transcription?
Inhibits it - inaccessible by transcription factors
73
What are the two processes that can lead to condensation?
Decreased acylation of histones or increased methylation of DNA
74
What is acylation?
Acyl group transferred to molecule
75
What molecule accepts the acyl group during acylation?
Acetyl coenzyme A
76
How does decreased acylation inactivate a gene?
Increased +ve charge on histones Increased attraction between histones and phosphate group of DNA Transcription factors can't access DNA
77
What is methylation?
Adding a methyl group to a molecule
78
Which base normally accepts the methyl group?
Cytosine
79
What are the two ways in which methylation inhibits transcription?
Prevents transcriptional factors binding to DNA | Attracts proteins to cause condensation of complex
80
How does siRNA block gene expression?
An enzyme cuts RNA into smaller siRNA One of the siRNA molecules combines with an enzyme The siRNA guides the enzyme to a mRNA molecule by complementary base pairing When in position, the enzyme cuts the mRNA into smaller chunks The mRNA no longer forms a polypeptide when translated The gene has been blocked
81
What is siRNA?
Small interfering RNA