Chapter 2 Topics 3 and 4 Flashcards
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
analogical representations
- mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of what they represent
ex. map, clock, drawing of rose
symbolic representation
- abstract mental representations that do not correspond to the physical features of objects or ideas
ex. words, numbers, ideas
propositional thought
- reasoning that uses abstract logic in the absence of concrete examples
- expresses a statement, such as “I’m hungry” or “its almost time for dinner”
motoric thought
mental representations of motor movements, such as throwing an object
imaginal thought
consists of images that we can see, hear, or feel in our mind
The three types of thought
-propositional
-imaginal
-motoric
aphantasia
inability to imagine sensory experiences, such as visualizing a scene, hearing music in the mind, or imagining a specific smell
concept
- symbolic representations (mental representation that doesn’t correspond to idea/object)
- a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
- a category or class of related things that consist of mental presentations of those things
SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATIONS
ex. groups of animals, fruits, etc
categorization
- grouping things together
- ex. lily and rose
category vs concept
Category: A category is a collection of instances which are treated as if they were the same.
Concept: A concept refers to all the knowledge that one has about a category.
concepts
prototype
the most typical, familiar member of category
- categories are based around prototypes
- the best example
- only note similarities
- children’s early concepts are based on prototypes (Ex. not all animals = dogs)
- experienced the most, therefore best example
concept
exemplar
- no best example
- prototype = best example while exemplar = all examples
- compare new example with all examples
- ex. if you saw a chihuahua, you wouldn’t compare it to your prototype of, say, a golden retriever. You’d compare to all types of dogs you know
- experience matters (compare chihuahua with all the dogs you’ve encountered)
schema
- mental blueprint
- ways we organize knowledge into a mental concept
- guide to our behaviour
scrips
- schema that directions behaviour over time within a situation
- like a script for going to the movies (we know we have to buy ticket, stand in line, get popcorn, etc)
- can lead to stereotypes (ex. children associating science with males instead of females as well)
- Scripts are really just packages of expectations about what people will do in given situations, so one is constantly surprised since other people don’t always do what one expects.
problem solving steps
- framing: interpret and understand problem
- generating solutions: generate hypotheses or possible solutions
- test the solutions, hypotheses, seeking to disconfirm one or more of them
- evaluate results and, if necessary, revise steps 1, 2, 3
- test the solutions
mental set
- tendency to stick to solutions that have worked in the past
- fixated with an approach if it has been successful in the past
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
Two types of strategies
-algorithms
-heuristics
strategies
algorithms
- automatically generate correct solutions
heuristic
- a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
- ex. you ran out of butter for cookies so you use oil instead: cookies don’t taste/look as good
ie.
General problem-solving strategies.
heuristics
means-ends analysis
- identify differences between present situation and desired state
- try to reduce difference
heuristics
subgoal analysis
a problem-solving heuristic in which people attack a large problem by formulating subgoals, or intermediate steps toward a solution
availability heuristic
- Judgments & decisions are based on
availability of information in memory
confirmation bias
- look for evidence that will confirm what we believe
- not look for evidence that could disconfirm beliefs
hindsight bias
there are many ways of explaining past events and there is usually no way to know which of these ways is correct
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
- applies to others, situations, and ourselves
