Chapter 2 Study Guide

Question 1

• [ ] Briefly identify and describe the three goals of the scientific enterprise. (pp. 44-45)

Answer 1

Interrelated goals shared by all scientists — psychologists included.

3 sets of interrelated goals:
1.) Measurement and description - The first goal of psychology is to develop measurement techniques that make it possible to describe behavior clearly and concisely

2.) Understanding and prediction - scientists then, with accurate measurements, can find patterns, understand why they happen, and predict them in the future. Hypothesis. Variable

3.) Application and control - after reliable predictions are made scientists then seek to apply that knowledge to solve real world problems.
Theory

Question 2

• [ ] Define hypothesis, variables, and theory. What is required of a scientific theory? How are scientific theories constructed? (pp. 44-45)

Answer 2

Hypothesis - a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables

Variable - any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviors that are controlled or observed in a study.

Theory - is system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations.

A scientific theory is constructed by -
Pg 45 figure 2.1

Question 3

• [ ] Identify and describe the five steps in scientific investigations, as outlined by Weiten and McCann. (pp. 46-48)

Answer 3

5 STEPS IN A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
1.) FORMULATE A TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS - develop a hypothesis and clearly identify the variables (operational definition)

2.) SELECT THE RESEARCH METHOD AND DESIGN THE STUDY - Develop method to test hypothesis. Various methods: experiments, case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, etc.
Identify participants- persons or animals whose behavior is being studied

3.) COLLECT THE DATA - record the measurements obtained from the research method used to observe the variables.
Data collection techniques - pg 46 2.1 - procedures for making empirical observations.

4.) ANALYZE THE DATA AND DRAW CONCLUSIONS - analyze the measurements collected from the research method used to observe the variables.
Usually statistics.

5.) REPORT THE FINDINGS - Publish findings so that the results and methods can be peer reviewed, tested and shared with the scientific community.

Question 4

Define operational definition, participants (or subjects), and data collection techniques. (p. 46)

Answer 4

Operation definition - clearly defining the variables so that the can be empirically measured

Participants - the persons or animals whose behavior is being studied

Data collection techniques - pg 46 2.1 - procedures for making empirical observations.

Question 5

• [ ] Describe the procedure and results of Dutton and Aron’s (1974) experiment concerning anxiety and sexual attraction. (pp. 47-48)

Answer 5

DUTTON AND AARONS EXPERIMENT -

1.) formulate a testable hypothesis - Dutton and Aaron’s hypothesis was that unambiguous emotions such as fear or anxiety under specific conditions be relabeled as sexual attraction.
Variables: 
Independent:
High fear bridge/low fear ridge 
Male/female confederate
Dependent:
Degree of sexual imagery (TAT)
Called confederate within 24h? T/f

2.) Select the research method and design the study - method: experiment
Participants crossed either a high/low intensity bridge (independent) and followed by a short survey by a male/female confederate (independent).
The participants then took a Thematic Apperception Test or TAT to measure degree of sexual imagery. Whether or not the participants called the confederate later that day was also recorded.
The TAT scores and call rate of the participants that crossed the low intensity bridge was compared to the participants that crossed the high intensity bridge. Participants with male confederates were compared to participants with female confederates.

3.) COLLECT THE DATA
TAT score and call back rate from high intensity bridge crossers with male confederate and female confederate.
TAT score and call-back-rate of low intensity bridge goers with male confederate and female confederate.
HIbridge/LIbridge TATscores: 2.47/1.41
Call-Back-Rate: HI>LI

4.) ANALYZE THE DATA AND DRAW CONCLUSIONS - Did the participants TAT scores and call-back-rates support or weaken the hypothesis? The results supported the hypothesis that unambiguous emotions such as fear or anxiety under specific conditions be relabeled as sexual attraction.

5.) REPORT THE FINDINGS -
The results of the findings were published and supported other theories such as Schachter’s (1964) that arousal combines with cognitive labeling to produce distinct emotions.

Question 6

Describe two advantages of the scientific approach as it relates to the study of behaviour. (pp. 48-49)

Answer 6

The two features of a scientific approach with respect to behaviour are 1) an insistence on clarity and precision, and 2) avoidance of errors.

Question 7

• [ ] Define experiment. Define and give examples of the independent and dependent variables that are encountered in an experiment. Be able to identify examples of these variables in experiments. (pp. 49-50)

Answer 7

Experiment - research method I. Which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result.

Independent variable - condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable.

Dependent variable - the variable that is affected by — and measured from — the independent variable.

Independent variable example - featured study -

1. ) high Intensity Bridge vs. low intensity bridge
2. ) male confederate vs. female confederate

Dependent variable example -

1. ) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) results
2. ) Confederate call back rate

Question 8

• [ ] Distinguish between experimental and control groups, and explain their relationship in an experiment. Explain why changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to the independent variable in an experiment. (p. 51)

Answer 8

Experiment group — consists of subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable.

Control group — consists of of subjects that do not receive special treatment in regard to the independent variable.

Relationship in an experiment — Measurements obtained from the dependent variable from the experimental group are compared to the measurements obtained from the control group to see if the manipulation of the independent variable produced the hypothesized results.
Experiment groups and control groups should be as similar as possible to reduce extraneous variables.

Why does changing independent variable affect the dependent variable — the dependent variable changes can be attributed to the manipulation of the independent variable as a good researcher would limit extraneous variables as much as possible and therefor the changes in the dependent variable can only be attributed to the manipulation of the independent variable

Question 9

• [ ] Define extraneous variables and confounding of variables. (p. 51)

Answer 9

Extraneous variables - any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study.

Confounding variables - two variables that are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects.

Question 10

Define random assignment of subjects. (p. 51)

Answer 10

Random assignment of subjects - all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in the study.

Question 11

Why is it sometimes advantageous to use only one group of subjects who serve as their own control? Define the two broad types of experimental design used in psychology: between-subjects design and a within-subjects design. Be able to cite and recognize original examples of these designs (p. 52)

Answer 11

It can be advantageous to use the same group of subjects and both the control and experiment group because —

two broad types of experimental design used in psychology:
between-subjects design —

within-subjects design —

Cite and recognize original examples of these designs:

Comment: The between-subjects design typically involves an experimental group of subjects and at least one control group of subjects. For example, the subjects in an experimental group might be given the drug the researcher is interested in testing, while the subjects in the control group are given a placebo. The researcher will then check to determine whether any significant differences exist between the two groups of subjects.
The within-subjects design does not require a separate control group. In this design, one group of subjects (or even a single subject) acts as their own control. Thus, the researcher might take repeated measures of each subject’s response to different experimental conditions. For example, each subject might be given the placebo first, then the drug the researcher is interested in testing, then the placebo again. This approach is known as an A-B-A design. These designs are useful because they show the effects of a variable on an individual subject rather than on a hypothetical “average subject.”

Question 12

• [ ] Is it possible to use more than one independent variable in a single experiment? Explain. Provide and recognize original examples of experiments of this type. (p. 52)

Answer 12

It’s is possible to have multiple independent variables because —

Cite original examples of multiple independent variables in psychological experiments:

Question 13

• [ ] What is an interaction? Be able to cite and recognize novel examples of interactions and to explain the nature of the interaction. (p. 52)

Answer 13

Interaction — the effect of one variable depends on the effect of another.
Bridge intensity interacted with sexual attraction after crossing

Cite original example:

Question 14

• [ ] Is it possible to use more than one dependent variable in a single experiment? Explain. Provide and recognize original examples of the use of multiple dependent variables. (p. 52)

Answer 14

It is possible to use more than one dependent variable in a single experiment because —

Cite original example:

Question 15

• [ ] Discuss the major advantages and disadvantages of the experimental method. What are field experiments? Be able to cite and recognize novel examples of field experiments (p. 53)

Answer 15

major advantages and disadvantages of the experimental method:
Advantages —

Disadvantages —

Field experiment —

Cite original examples of field experiments:

Question 16

• [ ] Distinguish between the experimental and the descriptive/correlational research methods. Cite and describe three descriptive research methods: naturalistic observation, case studies, and surveys. (pp. 54-57)

Answer 16

DESCRIPTIVE/CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS:
1.)Naturalistic observation — a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with the research subjects or participants.
Example: does transportation methods impact punctuality in schools?
Animal behavior
🟢Useful for researching subjects that would otherwise be unethical to study using alternative research methods.
- 🔻Reactivity — effect the researcher may have in the the authenticity of the the observed natural behavior.
🔻Difficult to translate into numerical data

2.) Case studies — an in-depth investigation into an individual subject.
➖psychological autopsies- when the case study research method is used to study victims of suicide.
➖method used frequently by clinical psychologists
🔻typically not empirical research
🟢well suited for investigating certain phenomena such as psychological disorders and neuropsychological issues.
🟢Provide compelling support for theories
🔻highly subjective
🔻experimenter bias
🟢effective treatment for mental disorders

Example:
Clinal psychologist analyzing a patients behavior
Diagnosing mental disorder causing suicide

3.). Surveys — research use questionnaires to gather self-report data on aspects of subjects behavior.
🟢useful for obtaining data on otherwise difficult to observe behavior
🟢easy to collect data from large samples
🔴self-report data is subject to unintentional distortion
🔴Can be inaccurate if not properly conducted
Example:
Does sleep consistency affect the frequency of a subject’s tendency to identify as a morning person?

Question 17

• [ ] Discuss the major advantages and disadvantages of descriptive/correlational research. What is the strongest disadvantage of descriptive/correlational research? (pp. 56-58)

Answer 17

Pg 57 2.4

Question 18

• [ ] What are statistics? What are descriptive statistics? (pp. 58-59)

Answer 18

Statistics — use of mathematics organize, summarize and interpret numerical data.

Descriptive statistics — are used to summarize and organize data
Ex. Creating a excel spreadsheet to organize raw data into easy to work with numbers

Question 19

• [ ] What is central tendency? Define and describe the three measures of central tendency: the median, the mean, and the mode. Which of these measures is most useful? Which measure is unduly influenced by extreme scores? (pp. 59-60)

Answer 19

Central tendency — the ‘average’ and the different ways to interpret that measurement.

Mean — arithmetic average of the values in a distribution.

Median — value of the central number in the distribution.

Mode — value that occurs with the highest frequency I. The distribution.

Which of these is most useful?
The mean is the most useful as it is the most versatile measurement to work with.

Which is influenced by extreme scores?
Mean is influenced by extreme scores significantly more than median or mode.

Question 20

• [ ] What is a frequency distribution? What is a symmetrical frequency distribution, a negatively skewed distribution, and a positively skewed distribution. (pp. 59-60)
Comment: You can see three examples of frequency distributions in Figure 2.6.

Answer 20

Frequency distribution — is an orderly arrangement of scores indicating the frequency of each score or group of scores.

symmetrical frequency distribution — frequency distribution polygon is symmetrical at the mean.
Looks like Norma distribution

Negatively skewed distribution — distribution is skewed to the left

Positively skewed distribution —distribution is skewed to the right

Question 21

• [ ] Define variability. What, in general terms, is a standard deviation? What does a large standard deviation indicate about variability? What does a small standard deviation indicate about variability? (pp. 60-62)


Answer 21

Variability — measure of how much the scores vary from each other and from the mean.

Standard deviation — an index on the amount of variability in a data set.
Measure of how far the values are distributed from the mean in general

Large standard deviation indicated that the variability is — high

Small standard deviation? — low

Comment: The measures of central tendency tell us where the centre of a frequency distribution lies. But those measures tell us nothing about how much variability there is in the distribution. The standard deviation provides information about variability. The mean tells us little without the standard deviation.

Question 22

• [ ] What are relative measures? What is a percentile score? If your percentile score on the final exam in this course is 10%, have you done relatively well or poorly on the exam? Explain. (p. 61)

Answer 22

relative measures — the measure of a subjects trait in relation to other subjects.

percentile score — indicates the percentage of people who score at or below a particular score.

If your percentile score on the final exam in this course is 10%, have you done relatively well or poorly on the exam? Explain.
You have done poorly as you have done as well or better than just only 10% of the class.

Question 23

• [ ] When is a correlation said to exist? What is a correlation coefficient? What is a positive correlation? What is a negative correlation? What is the strength of the correlation, and how is this indicated in the correlation coefficient? Provide and recognize original examples of variables that are positively and negatively correlated. (pp. 62-63)

Answer 23

When is a correlation said to exist?
Correlation exists when two variables are related to one another.

correlation coefficient — numerical index to the degree of relationship between two variables.

Negative correlation — the two variables of interest are inversely related
Example:
Drug use and poverty
Trait agreeableness and average salary

Positive correlation — the two variables are directly related
Example:
Sleep and test scores
Exercise and life expectancy

What is the strength of the correlation and how is it indicated- the closer the correlation is to 1.00 the close the two variables are to being identical

Question 24

• [ ] Explain how a correlation relates to prediction and causation. Provide and recognize original examples of two variables that are positively or negatively correlated, but that are not causally related. (pp. 63-64)

Answer 24

Is correlation causation?
No because while two variables might be related to one another the manipulation of one in isolation may not influence the other variable in the same way.

Two variables that are correlated but not causally links dare:
Daily coffee drinking and suicide risk

Question 25

• [ ] What are inferential statistics? What is statistical significance? Explain the distinction between the statistical and the practical significance of research findings. (pp. 64-65)


Answer 25

Inferential statistics — used to interpret data and draw conclusions

Statistical significance — is said to exist when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance are low.

Practical vs. statistical significance of research findings — while findings may be statistically significant it may not be practically useful or important.

Null hypothesis - the two variables are not related at all.

Comment: Most psychological experiments make use of inferential statistical tests to determine whether there was a cause-effect relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable. So if you go on in psychology, it is important to thoroughly understand descriptive and inferential statistics. However, some behavioural scientists avoid the use of inferential statistics in favour of the more simple use of graphs that display the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable. The use of graphing for this purpose is characteristic of the field of applied behaviour analysis, which tends to use within-subjects experimental designs. Athabasca University’s Psychology 365: Behaviour Modification Principles covers these approaches to research.
Comment: Although Weiten and McCann do not explicitly discuss statistical methods, it is important that you understand the basic concepts so that you can more fully understand the empirical method. Appendix B of the text (pp. A-7-14) provides a brief introduction to this topic. To help you understand terms you might be exposed to in scientific papers, a brief explanation of the null hypothesis and statistical significance is provided as follows.

Question 26

• [ ] What is replication? Why is it useful in scientific progress? (p. 65)


Answer 26

Replication — the repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated.

It is useful to test the strength of the researchers findings by even further limiting extraneous variables.

Comment: Replications are simply reruns of experiments, but often a rerun takes place under different conditions than the original experiment. In a replication, the same basic experiment is conducted again to determine whether it will produce the same findings as the original experiment. Within psychology and the other sciences, it is often difficult to publish research that fails to replicate the original work. The data from such failed replications are sometimes called “negative results.”

Question 27

• [ ] What is a meta-analysis? What information can a meta-analysis provide that cannot be provided by a single experiment? (p. 66)

Answer 27

Meta-analysis — the combination of the statistical results of many studies of the same question yielding an estimate of the size and consistency of a variable’s effect.

Question 28

• [ ] Name and describe the following flaws that can be present in psychological research: sampling bias, placebo effects, distortions in self-report data, and experimenter bias. Be able to cite and recognize original example of these flaws. (pp. 66-69)

Answer 28

sampling bias — exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn
Original example:

placebo effects — occur when a participants’ expectations lead them to experience some change Ben though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment.
Original example:

distortions in self-report data—
Social desirability bias — which is a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself
Original example:

experimenter bias—occurs when the researchers expectations or preference about the outcomes influences the results obtained
Original example:

Question 29

• [ ] Define sample and population. Provide and recognize original examples of each. Be sure you are able to distinguish between representative, and biased or non-representative samples. (pp. 66-67)

Answer 29

Sample — the collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study.
Original example:

Population — much larger collection of animals or people (from which the sample is drawn) that researchers want to generalize about.
Original example:

Representative sample — a sample that is representative of the population from which is was drawn.

Biased sample — a sample that is not representative of the population from which it was drawn.

Non-representative sample —

Question 30

• [ ] Be able to cite and provide original examples of research in which an apparent experimental effect could be due to a placebo effect. (pp. 67-68)

Answer 30

Placebo effect original example and citation:

Question 31

• [ ] Define social desirability bias. Provide and recognize original examples of this source of bias. What is a response set? What are halo effects? Explain why response sets and halo effects can pose problems for researchers. (pp. 68-69)

Answer 31

Social desirability bias — a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.
Original example:

Response set — a tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the context of the questions.

Halo effect — ones overall assessment of a subject may influence ones assessment of more specific facets of the subject.

These cause problems because — these cause problems as the highlight the subjectivity of surveys.

Question 32

• [ ] Define double-blind procedure. Explain why this procedure is useful. (p. 69)

Answer 32

Double blind procedure — research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control group.

It is important because — it suppressed the effects of experimenter bias and the placebo effect.

Question 33

• [ ] What is Internet-mediated research? Describe the advantages and disadvantages of this type of research. (pp. 72-73)

Answer 33

Internet-mediated research — refers to the studies in which data collection is done using the web.
🟢larger and more diverse samples
🟢access niche populations
🟢cheap and fast
🔻potential for sampling bias
🔻yen’s you be young and affluent
🔻far less control over conditions

Question 34

• [ ] Discuss the controversy over the use of deception in psychological research. (pp. 73-74)


Answer 34

Deception is controversial in its use in research because it is often criticized for it being immoral to lie and undermine the subjects trust in the researcher. May insult the subject. But other content that deception is a necessary tool in order to research specific topics.

Comment: A key element in this chapter is Weiten and McCann’s focus on ethical considerations. While they focus on experimental research and most obviously on the use of deception, other clear examples of abuse in clinical domains have occurred in recent history. Consider that in the United Kingdom in the mid-1970s homosexuality was a criminal offence punishable by a prison term or by treatment using electrical shock therapy to decondition the homosexual individual to homosexual urges. Although perceptions about homosexuality have changed radically since then, most psychologists at that time did not recognize these treatments as abusive. A consciousness of ethical and human rights considerations benefits everyone.