Chapter 2: Clinical Psychology's Past and Present

Question 1

Social and Historical Factors That Shape Clinical Psychology

Answer 1

Use of Scientific Research Methods - the Empirical Tradition
Measurement of Individual Differences - the Psychometric Tradition
Classification and Treatment of Behavior Disorders - the Clinical Tradition

Question 2

Wilhelm Wundt

Answer 2

Established the first laboratory devoted to studying mental processes in Leipzig, Germany; considered founder of psychology because the advent of his laboratory proclaimed psychology as a science and because he trained many students who went on to establish psychology programs in European and US universities

Question 3

Johanne Muller & Herman Helmholtz

Answer 3

Identified neural pathways for vision and hearing, discoveries that addressed the question of how physical energy became mental experiences

Question 4

Ernst Weber & Gustav Fechner

Answer 4

Showed that people’s perceptual experiences changed in mathematically predictable ways as stimuli changed, suggesting that mind and body were fundamentally connected

Question 5

Lightner Witmer

Answer 5

Studied under Wundt and was appointed director of the University of Pennsylvania psychology laboratory; became the first clinical psychologist after working with Charles Gilman, a chronic bad speller with a reading disorder

Question 6

Psychological Clinic

Answer 6

First clinical journal founded and edited by Lightner Witmer;

Question 7

Why Witmer’s Ideas were not accepted by APA Members

Answer 7

Most psychologists considered themselves scientists and probably did not regard the role described by Witmer as appropriate for them; first clinicians were trained as scientists in laboratories, so they tended to think about clinical problems in scientific terms and to use laboratory research methods in dealing with them
Few psychologists were prepared by training or experience to perform the functions he proposed
They were not about to jeopardize their identification as scientists by plunging their profession into what they felt were premature applications
Witmer had an unfortunate talent for antagonizing his colleagues

Question 8

Aspects of Witmer’s clinic which came to characterize subsequent clinical work

Answer 8

Most of his clients were children (offered child psychology, first journal in pediatrics, attracted attention of teachers concerned with students)
REcommendations were preceded by diagnostic assessment
Did not work alone but in a team approach that saw members of various professions consulting and collaborating on cases
Emphasized prevention of future problems through early diagnosis and remediation
Emphasized that clinical psychhology should be built on principles being discovered in scientific psychology as a whole

Question 9

Psychometric Tradition

Answer 9

The practice of measuring people’s physical and mental abilities

Question 10

Recognition of Measuring Individual Differences

Answer 10

Plato suggested that propective soldiers be tested for military ability before their acceptance in the army
Pythagoras selected members of his brotherhood on the basis of facial characteristics, intelligence, and emotionality
Prospective government employees in China were given individual ability tests before being hired

Question 11

F.W. Bessel

Answer 11

Astronomer at the University of Konigsberg (Germany) observatory who developed personal equation

Question 12

Personal Equation

Answer 12

How the characteristics of various observers are reflected in differences in discrepancies in findings; sparked interest in individual differences

Question 13

Franz Gall & Johann Spurzheim

Answer 13

Developed Phrenology as an alleged science based on assumptions that: each area of the brain is associated with a different faculty or function; the better developed eaced of these areas is, the more strongly that faculty or function is manifested in behavior; the pattern of over- or underdevelopment of each faculty is reflected in corresponding bumps or depressions in the skull

Question 14

Johann Spurzheim

Answer 14

Developed a map of the brain’s 37 powers or organs and phrenological measurements were made on more respective segments of society; people paid to have their head examined and they received a profile allegedly describing their mental makeup

Question 15

Cesare Lombroso

Answer 15

Italian psychiatrist whose theory of physiognomy correlated facial features with personality

Question 16

Charles Darwin

Answer 16

Source of interest in individual differences; proposed that variation of individual characteristics occurs within and between species and natural selection takes place in part on the basis of those characteristics

Question 17

Sir Francis Galton

Answer 17

Applied Darwin’s notions to the inheritance of individual differences - especially mental abilities; set up a laboratory in London which became the first mental testing center

Question 18

Alfred Binet

Answer 18

French lawyer, scientist and former student of Wundt; found the first French psychology laboratory; interested in mental measurement and began to develop measures of complex mental ability in normal and defective children

Question 19

Binet-Simon Scale

Answer 19

Introduced in the United States; designed to measure complex mental processes,; gained worldwide attention

Question 20

James McKeen Cattell

Answer 20

Person credited with merging individual mental measurement with the new science of psychology; one of the first psychologists to appreciate to appreciate the practical uses of tests in the selection and diagnosis of people; constructed a standard battery of mental tests for use by researchers interested in individual differences; chose 10 tests that reflected the then-prevalent tendency to use sensorimotor functioning as an index of mental capacity, and he tested people’s performance under varying conditions

Question 21

Wisconsin, Clark, & Yale

Answer 21

Adopted sensorimotor mental test; criticized because of their low correlations with most other mental ability criteria

Question 22

Hugo Munsterberg

Answer 22

Psychologist at University of Freiburg & Harvard constructed a set of 14 tests to assess children’s mental abilities

Question 23

Effects of Employment of Clinical Psychologists in Mental Hospitals

Answer 23

Widened psychologists’ sphere of influence as they contributed to the assessment of persons with psychological problems
Promoted interaction between psychologists and psychiatrists

Question 24

Trephining

Answer 24

Boring small holes in the skull to provide evil spirits with an exit

Question 25

Hippocrates

Answer 25

Suggested that these aberrations stem from natural causes; behavior disorders are a function of the distribution of four bodily fluids, or humors

Question 26

St. Mary’s of Bethlehem

Answer 26

Source of the word beldam; hospital movement which saved many lives, but it did not neacissarily make them worth living;

Question 27

Philippe Pinel

Answer 27

Ushered in the era of more humane treatment; believed that mentally ill are intractable only because they are deprived of fresh air and liberty

Question 28

Benjamin Rush

Answer 28

Regarded as the father of American Psychiatry; instrumental in changing the way institutionalized mental patients were treated in the United States; advocated the antiquated treatments of bloodletting and a tranquilizer chair for immobilization

Question 29

William Tuke

Answer 29

Favored the whiling chair and plunge baths

Question 30

Dorothea Lynde Dix

Answer 30

Teacher who was a key figure in their development taht mentally ill patients were suffering from diseases that could be treated led to the development of specialized mental hospitals

Question 31

Clifford Beers

Answer 31

Former mental patients who formed an organization that ultimately became National Association for Mental Health; worked to improve treatment of the mentally ill and to prevent psychological disorders

Question 32

Emil Kraepelin

Answer 32

Wrote and revised the first formal classifications of psychological disorders; included participation in the formation of the first state mental ygiene committee in the US, gave expert testimony in murder trials, screening soldiers in World War I, writing poetry, and studying Buddhism; his approach of classifying mental illness in terms of observable symptoms which is still evident in the current system of classification (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)

Question 33

Jean-Martin Charcot

Answer 33

Found that hypnosis could alleviate certain behavior disorders, might have psychological causes, particularly hysteria; favored explanations of hysteria based on neurological degeneration

Question 34

Sigmund Freud

Answer 34

Young Viennese neurologist who proposed the first stage of a theory in which behavior disorders were seen not as the result of organic problems but as a consequence of the dynamic struggle of the human mind to satisfy instinctual desires while also coping with the rules and restrictions of the outside world

Question 35

Sigmund Freud

Answer 35

Young Viennese neurologist who proposed the first stage of a theory in which behavior disorders were seen not as the result of organic problems but as a consequence of the dynamic struggle of the human mind to satisfy instinctual desires while also coping with the rules and restrictions of the outside world

Question 36

Jean-Martin Charcot

Answer 36

Found that hypnosis could alleviate certain behavior disorders might have psychological causes; favored explanations of hysteria based on neurological degenerations

Question 37

Robert Yerkes

Answer 37

President of APA to head a committee of assessment-oriented experimental psychologists who were to develop appropriate measures; produced the Army Alpha and Army Beta intelligence tests and to help detect behavior disorders

Question 38

Familiar Instruments of 1920’s and 1930’s

Answer 38

Jung's Word Association Test
Rorschack Inkblot Test
Miller Analogies Test
Goodenough Draw-A-Man Test
Strong Vocational Interest Test
Thematic Apperception Test
Bender-Gestalt Test
Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale

Question 39

Familiar Instruments of 1920’s and 1930’s

Answer 39

Jung's Word Association Test
Rorschack Inkblot Test
Miller Analogies Test
Goodenough Draw-A-Man Test
Strong Vocational Interest Test
Thematic Apperception Test
Bender-Gestalt Test
Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale

Question 40

What Changes Psychology

Answer 40

Psychological Testing Expanded to include measures of personality and psychopathology
Child guidance clinics, where clinical psychologists worked since the time of Witmer, broadened their client base to include treatment of social as well as educational maladjustment
Psychologists of the early 20th century became eager to learn psychoanalysis, the dominant approach to psychotherapy among psychiatrists

Question 41

William Healy

Answer 41

Founded the first child-guidance clinic in Chicago; worked with children, employed a team approach, and emphasized prevention; instead of dealing mainly with learning disabilites or other educational difficulties; focused on cases of child misbehavior that drew the attention of school autorities, the police, or the courts; approach taken by the staf at Healy’s Chicago clinic; heavily influenced y Freud’s psychoanalytic theories

Question 42

G. Stanley Hall

Answer 42

arranged for Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, and Sandor Ferenczi to speak at a conference at Clark University;

Question 43

Will James & James Baldwin

Answer 43

psychologists with strong interests in the self, the ego, and dissociated states of consciousness such as trance, hypnosis, and unexplained memory loss

Question 44

Psychoanalytic Treatment

Answer 44

Province of psychiatrists, not psychologists, and for many years the psyciatric community sought to keep it that way

Question 45

Veteran’s Administrations

Answer 45

Launched a program to support training in the mental health disciplines; made clinical internships available in VA hospitals and mental hygiene clinics
National effort to create community mental health clinics throughout the United States

Question 46

American Psychological Association

Answer 46

Dominated by researchers who had doubts about the wisdom of a clinical psychology profession; as more psychologists became interested in applying their knowledge beyond the laboratory, conflicts arose among APA members who wanted the discipline to be a pure science and those who wanted it to be an applied one

Question 47

American Association of Clinical Psychologists (AACP)

Answer 47

Cofounded in 1917 by Leta Hollingworth;

Question 48

Leta Hollingworth

Answer 48

A member of the Columbia University psychology faculty; first to suggest a more practically oriented form of training for clinical psychologists (PsyD) as an alternative to the research-based PhD; also suggested a national examining board to identify and grant licenses to qualified flinicians

Question 49

Association of Consulting Psychologists

Answer 49

Established codes of ethics for practicing psychologists

Question 50

American Association for Applied Psychology (AAAP)

Answer 50

Contained dividions of consulting, clinical, educational, and industrial psychology and remained a viable alternative to the research domiinated APA, which seemed to have little interest in practice concerns

Question 51

Psychodynamic Approach

Answer 51

Collection of related approaches; at its historical core are Freud’s psychoanalytic theories; many of Freud’s basic assumptions and psychotherapy techniques remain central to this approach

Question 52

Psychodynamic Model

Answer 52

Rooted in the work of neurologists and psychiatrists practicing in the French clinical tradition and is given its fullest expression in the writings of Sigmund Freud

Question 53

Sigmund Freud

Answer 53

Saw patients with neurological symptoms for which no organic cause could be found; dealt with neurotics who displayed hysterical paralyses, amnesia, anesthesia, blindness, and speech loss

Question 54

Cathartic Method

Answer 54

Reciting hallucinations; called the talking cure