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BIO 235 Anatomy & Physiology > Chapter 2 - Chemical level > Flashcards

Chapter 2 - Chemical level Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 4 major elements (96% of body mass) in the body?

A

Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N)

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2
Q

What are the 8 lesser elements (3.6% of body mass)?

A

Calcium (Ca), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Sulfur (S), Chlorine (Cl), Magnesium (Mg), Iron (Fe), and Sodium (Na)

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3
Q

How many trace elements are in your body?

A

14

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4
Q

How many electrons do the first 3 shells hold?

A

First holds 2, second holds 8 and third holds 18

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5
Q

Why is an atom usually electrically neutral?

A

Because the number of protons equals the number of electrons

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6
Q

Atomic number vs. mass number?

A

Atomic #: number of protons.
Mass #: number of protons + neutrons

All atoms of the same element will always have the same atomic number

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7
Q

What are isotopes?

A

Atoms that have different numbers of neutrons so have different mass numbers

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8
Q

Stable isotope vs. Radioactive isotope?

A

Stable - nuclear structure doesn’t change over time.

Radioactive - unstable, spontaneously change into a stable configuration

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9
Q

Explain how radioactive isotopes can be harmful

A

They can break apart molecules thus posing a threat to human body by producing tissue damage or causing various types of cancer

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10
Q

Name some benefits of radioactive isotopes

A

For diagnostic or treatment purposes. Used as tracers to follow movement of certain substances through the body.
Ex. Iodine-131 detects cancer of thyroid gland

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11
Q

What is the Atomic Mass?

A

Average mass of all its naturally occurring isotopes. Measured in Daltons and is usually close to the mass number

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12
Q

Define ion and ionization

A

Ion: - + or - atoms because it has unequal # of protons & electrons

Ionization: Process of giving up/gaining elections symbolized by (+) or (-)

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13
Q

Define:

  • molecule
  • compound
  • free radical
A

Molecule: 2 or more atoms share electrons (ex. H2O or O2)

Compound: substance of 2 or more molecules of different elements (Ex. H20, NaCl)

Free radical: Atom or group of atoms with unpaired electron in outermost shell (unstable, highly reactive); becomes stable by giving up or taking an electron from another molecule

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14
Q

Define chemical bonds - what increases likelihood of chemical bonds?

A

Chemical bonds hold together atoms of a molecule or compound

Atoms who do not have a filled valence shell are more likely to form a bond

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15
Q

What is the Octet Rule?

A

Explains why atoms act in predictable ways. One atom will be more likely to bind with another if doing so will leave both of them with 8 electrons in its valence shell

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16
Q

What are the 3 types of chemical bonds?

A

Ionic, covalent, and hydrogen

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17
Q

Define an ionic bond (cation vs. anion)?

A

Holds together 2 ions with opposite charges

During a bond it either looses/gains electrons to become:
Cation: positively charged ion (protons exceed electrons)
Anion: negatively charged ion (electrons exceed protons)

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18
Q

What’s an electrolyte?

A

Ionic compound that breaks apart into positive and negative ions in a solution… the solutions conduct an electrical current

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19
Q

Define covalent bond?

A

Two or more atoms SHARE electrons rather than gaining or losing them.

Share either 1 (single -), 2 (double =), or 3 (triple ≡) pairs of valence electrons; the more pairs, the stronger the bond

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20
Q

Non-polar vs. Polar covalent bond?

A

Non-polar: atoms share electrons equally

Polar: atoms share electrons unequally; the atoms that attracts more strongly has greater electronegativity (partial - charge) and the other will have partial + charge

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21
Q

Define hydrogen bonds?

A

H atom with a partial + charge attracts the partial negative charge of neighbouring electronegative atoms.

Results from attraction of oppositely charged parts of molecules rather than from sharing electrons (covalent) or loss/gain of electrons (ionic)

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22
Q

What gives a hydrogen bond high surface tension?

A

H that binds with water molecules creates high surface tension, a measure of difficulty of stretching or breaking the surface of a liquid

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23
Q

Define chemical reaction

A

Occurs when new bonds are formed or old bonds break between atoms

Reactants - starting substances
Products - ending substances

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24
Q

What is a catalyst?

A

Chemical compounds that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy needed and helping them collide

Enzymes are important catalysts

25
Q

Explain the basic differences between synthesis, decomposition, exchange, reversible, and oxidation-reduction reactions

A

Synthesis: put together larger molecules (anabolism refers to all synthesis reactions in the body)

Decomposition: split up molecules (catabolism refers to all decomposition reactions in the body)

Exchange: consist of both synthesis and decomposition; switching partners (ex. AB+CD -> AD+BC)

Reversible: Products can refer to optical reactants (ex. AB A+B)

Oxidation-reduction: concerned with transfer of electrons between atoms (one substances is oxidized and the other is reduced); oxidation (loss of elections) releases energy and reduction (gain of electrons) gains energy

26
Q

Inorganic vs. organic compounds?

A

Inorganic: lacks carbon, structurally simple (water, salts, acids, bases)
Organic: contains carbon

27
Q

Water is the most important and abundant ______ compounds in all living systems. Its more important property is its _______, the uneven sharing of valence electrons that makes it an excelled slant, gives cohesion, and allows resistance to temp

A

Inorganic; polarity

28
Q

Define solvent & solute (hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic)? Why is water a good solvent?

A

A solvent dissolves another substances called the solute

Solutes that are charged/contain polar covalent body are hydrophilic = dissolve easily

Solutes containing mainly non-polar covalent bonds are hydrophobic = not very soluble

Water makes a good solvent for hydrophilic solutes due to its polarity and bent shape

29
Q

Water can participate as a reactant or product in certain chemical reactions. Compare hydrolysis & dehydration synthesis reactions?

A

Hydrolysis (decomposition reaction): uses water as a reactant to break down molecules enabling nutrients to be absorbed into the body

Dehydration synthesis reaction: a synthesis reaction where a water molecule is one of the products formed

30
Q

Thermal properties of water. Define high heat capacity?

A

Can absorb/release large amount of heat with only a modest change in temperature due to large number of H bonds

31
Q

Water is a lubricant - why is lubrication important?

A

It is necessary where organs touch and slide over one another - mucus and water recreation aids in smooth passage

32
Q

Define mixture and the three common liquid mixtures (solutions, colloids, suspension)?

A

Mixture: combination of elements/compounds that are physically blended by not bound

Solutions: solutes remain evenly dispersed and appear transparent due to small particles

Colloids: solute particles are larger and scatter light and appear translucent or opaque

Suspension: suspended material mix with the liquid for some time but eventually settle out

33
Q

How is the concentration of a solution expressed?

A
  1. Mass/volume %

2. Moles/litre (molarity): A mole is the sum of the atomic masses in g ex. (22.99Na+35.45Cl) 1 mole of NaCl = 58.44g

34
Q

When inorganic acids, bases, or salts dissolve in water they dissociate, separating into ions. What is the difference between an acid, base and salt?

A

Acid: dissociated into one or more hydrogen ions (H+) and one or more anions

Bases: removes H+ from a solution and dissociates into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-)

Salt: dissociates into cations and anions, neither which is H+ or OH-

35
Q

Define the pH scale. What makes a solution or acidic or basic (alkaline)?

A

pH scale: a solutions acidity or alkalinity that extends from a 0-14 scale; 7 indicates H+ and OH- are equal (below 7 = acidic; above 7 = basic)

The more H+ dissolved, the more acidic; the more OH- dissolved, the more basic

36
Q

Define a buffer system (acidosis vs. alkalosis)?

A

A buffer system functions to covert strong acids/bases into weak acids/based to maintain homeostasis

pH of blood must maintain levels between 7.35 and 7.45

  • Acidosis: pH falls below 7.35
  • Alkalosis: pH rises above 7.45
37
Q

What is the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system?

A

Carbonic acid (H2CO3) can act as a weak acid and bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) can act as a weak base

Thus, this buffer system can compensate for either excess/shortage of H+

38
Q

Define carbohydrates

A

Includes sugars, glycogen, starches, cellulose.

Function as a source of chemical energy for generating ATP needed to drive metabolic processes

C, H and O are elements of carbohydrates (2:1 ratio of H to O)

39
Q

Define the 3 main groups of carbohydrates?

A

Monosaccharides: simple sugars that contain 3-7 carbon atoms (ends in -ose: glucose, fructose, galactose, etc.)

Disaccharides: simple sugars formed from combination of 2 monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis (ex. sucrose= glucose + fructose; lactose= glucose+galactose)

Polysaccharides: tens-hundreds of monosaccharide joined by dehydration synthesis; usually insoluble in water

40
Q

Starch, cellulose, and glycogen are examples of _________ carbohydrate group. Explain them

A

Polysaccharides

Starch - stored from carbs in plants & main carb in food
Cellulose - part of cell wall in plants that cannot be digested by humans but aids in movement through intestine
Glycogen - stored form of carbs in animals

41
Q

Define macromolecules, polymers, monomers, and isomers

A

Macromoleules: combination of organic molecules

Macromolecules are usually polymers, a large molecule formed by bonding of many small and similar molecules called monomers

Isomers: molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures

42
Q

What are the 3 types of subatomic particles important for understanding chemical reactions in the body?

A

Protons: positively charged, within nucleus
Neutrons: uncharged, within nucleus
Electrons: negatively charged, surround nucleus

43
Q

Define lipids & lipoproteins

A

Insoluble in polar solvents (hydrophobic0 due to less electronegative O atoms resulting in fewer covalent bonds

C, H and O are elements of lipids (does not have 2:1 ratio of H to O)

In order to become soluble in blood plasma they join hydrophilic molecules to become lipoproteins

44
Q

Describe the function of the following lipids:

  • fatty acids
  • triglycerides
  • phospholipid
  • steroid (cholesterol)
  • eicasnoids
A

Fatty acids: synthesize triglycerides and phospholipids or catabolized to generate ATP

Triglycerides (fats & oils): protections, insulation, energy storage

Phospholipid: major lipid component of cell membranes

Cholesterol (steroid): minor comment of animal cell membrane, precursors of bile salts, Vit D, and steroid hormones

Eicasnoids (proglandins & luekotrine): diverse effects on modifying responses to hormones, blood clotting, inflammation, immunity, stomach acid secretion, smooth muscle contraction

45
Q

Saturated vs. unsaturated fatty acid

A

Saturated: contains only one single covalent bond between carbon atoms and hydrocarbon chain

Unsaturated: contains one or more double covalent bonds between the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chain (has a kink/bend)

46
Q

Describe the structure of the following lipids:

  • fatty acids
  • triglycerides
  • phospholipid
  • steroid
A

Fatty acids: carboxyl group and hydrocarbon

Triglycerides: single glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid molecules

Phospholipid: 2 fatty acid chains that attach to the first 2 carbons in the glycerol backbone and phospage groups links a small charged group to the third carbon

Steroid: 4 rings are carbon atoms

47
Q

Phospholipids have both polar and non-polar parts which are known as __________

A

amphipathic - they line up tail-to-tail in a double row to make a membrane

48
Q

Describe the function of the following proteins:

  • Structural
  • Regulatory
  • Contractile
  • Immunological
  • Transport
  • Catalytic
A

Structural: form structural framework for body

Regulatory: function as hormones that regulate various physiological processes; control grown; as NTs mediate response of NS

Contractile: allow shortening of muscle cells (movement)

Immunological: Aid responses that protect body against pathogens

Transport: transport vital substances

Catalytic: act as enzymes to regulate biochemical reactions

49
Q

Define proteins

A

Large molecules that contain C, H, O, and N and some contain S

They are structurally more complex than carbs or lipids and are largely responsible for the structure of body tissues

50
Q

Define amino acids & peptide bonds

A

Amino acids - monomers that make up proteins (20 types)

Peptide bonds - amino acids are bonded by covalent bonds to create a protein

Peptide proteins can be in combinations of 2 (dipeptide), 3 (tripeptide), 4-9 (peptide), and 10+ (polypeptide)

51
Q

Describe the 4 levels of structural organization in proteins (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary)

A

Primary: unique sequence of amino acids

Secondary: repeated twisting/folding of neighbouring amino acids

Tertiary: 3-dimensional shape of polypeptide chain

Quaternary: arrangement of polypeptide chain relative to one another (only in proteins with 1+ polypeptide chain)

52
Q

Fibrous vs globular proteins

A

Fibrous - insoluble in water and polypeptide chains run parallel to each other (structural functions)

Globular - more soluble and peptide chain are spherical (metabolic functions)

53
Q

_________ refers to the process in which a protein encounters an altered environment causing it to unravel and lose its characteristic shape

A

Denaturation (no longer functional)

54
Q

Define nucleic acids and their 2 varieties

A

Huge organic molecules that contain C, H, N, and P

It is a chain of repeating monomers called nucleotides

DNA: forms inherited genetic natural inside each cell
RNA: relays instructions from genes to guide each cell’s synthesis of proteins from amino acids

55
Q

Describe the 3 parts of a DNA nucleotide:

A

Nitrogenous base: 4 different bases [adenine (A) & thymine (T), cytosine (C) & guanine (G)]

Pentose sugar: 5-carbon sugar called deoxyribose attaches to each base

Phosphate group

56
Q

Compare the sugars in nuclotides and number of strings between DNA and RNA

A

DNA: deoxyribose (sugar), double helix (strands)

RNA: ribose (sugar), single stranded)

57
Q

ATP vs. ADP

A

ATP: energy of living systems - transfers energy liberated in exergonic catabolic reactions to power cellular activities

ATPase hydroysizes ATP: H20 + ATP –> ADP + P + energy

58
Q

Describe the 3 part mechanism of an enzyme

A

Enzyme and substate (reactant molecules) come together at active sit of enzyme, forming an enzyme-substrate complex

Enzyme catalyzes reaction and transforms substates into products

When reaction is complete the enzyme is unchanged and free to catalyze same reaction again on a new substate

BIO 235 Anatomy & Physiology (10 decks)

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