Chapter 2- Biological Perspective Flashcards
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A branch of the life-sciences that deals with the structure and function of neurons nerves and nervous tissue
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Neuroscience
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An extensive network of specialized cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body
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Nervous system
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Branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning
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Biological psychology or behavioral neuroscience
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The brain and spinal cord
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Central nervous system
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All nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal cord but that run through the body itself
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Peripheral nervous system
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Interprets and stores information and sends orders to muscles, glands, and organs
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Brain
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A long bundle of neurons that carries messages between the body and the brain and is responsible for very fast, lifesaving reflexes
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Spinal cord
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Division of the peripheral nervous system consisting of nerves that control all of the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands
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Autonomic nervous system
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Division of the peripheral nervous system consisting of nerves that carry information from the senses to the central nervous system and from the CNS to the voluntary muscles of the body
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Somatic nervous system
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Part of the ANS that with stores the body to normal functioning after arousal and is responsible for the day to day functioning of the organs and glands
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Parasympathetic division (fight or flight system)
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Part of the ANS that is responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal
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Sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system
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The basic cell that makes up the nervous system and that receives and sends messages within that system
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Neuron
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Branchlike structures that receive messages from other neurons
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Dendrite
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The cell body of the neuron responsible for maintaining the life of the cell
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Soma
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Tubelike structure that carries the neural message to other cells
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Axon
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Cells that provide support for the neurons to grow on and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to coat axons, clean up waste products and dead neurons, influence information processing, and, during prenatal development, influence the generation of new neurons
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Glial cells
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Fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse
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Myelin
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Bundles of axons coated in Myelin that travel together through the body
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Nerves
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Process of molecules moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration
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Diffusion
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Produce myelin in the brain and spinal cord
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Oligodendrocytes
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Produce myelin in the neurons of the body
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Schwann cells
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Small spaces on the axon that are not covered in myelin
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Node
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A disease where the myelin sheath is destroyed (possibly by the individual’s own immune system), which leads to diminished or complete loss of neural functioning in those damaged cells
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Multiple sclerosis
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Charged particles
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Ion
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This means some substances that are outside the cell can enter through tiny openings in the membrane, while other substances in the cell can go outside of the cell membrane
Semi permeable
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The state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse
Resting potential
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The release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon
Action potential
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Referring to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all
All or none
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During the resting potential, the neuron is negatively charged inside and positively charged outside
The neuron at rest
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The action potential occurs when positive sodium ions enter the cell, causing a reversal of the electrical charge from negative to positive
The neural impulse
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As the action potential moves down the axon toward the axon terminals, the cell areas behind the action potential return to the resting state of a negative charge as the positive sodium ions are pumped to the outside of the cell, and the positive potassium ions rapidly be
The neural impulse continues
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May also be called terminal buttons, rounded areas on the end of the axon terminals
Synaptic knob
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Branches at the end of the axon
Axon terminals
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Saclike structures found inside the synaptic knob containing chemicals
Synaptic vesicles
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Chemical found in the synaptic vesicles that, when released, has an effect on the next cell
neurotransmitter
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Microscopic fluid filled space between the synaptic knob of one cell and the dendrites or surface of the next cell
Synaptic gap or synapse
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Three-dimensional proteins on the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters
Receptor sites
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Synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire
Excitatory synapse
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Synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing
Inhibitory synapse
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Found at the synapses between neurons and muscle cells, serves to stimulate the skeletal muscles to contract but actually slows contractions in the heart muscle
Acetylcholine
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A drug used by South American Indians on their blowdarts that gets into the nervous system and paralyzes the victim by being an antagonist for acetylcholine
Curare
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Chemical substances that block or reduce a cell'a response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters
Antagonists
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Chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell
Agonists
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Process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles
Reuptake
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Excitatory or inhibitory; involved in memory and controls muscle contractions
Acetylcholine
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Excitatory or inhibitory; involved and mood, sleep, and appetite
Serotonin
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Major inhibitory neurotransmitter; involved in sleep and inhibits movement
GABA (gamma-amino-butyric acid)
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Major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in learning, memory formation, and nervous system development
Glutamate
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Mainly excitatory; involved in arousal and mood
Norepinephrine
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Excitatory or inhibitory; involved in control of movement and sensations of pleasure
Dopamine
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Inhibitory neural regulators; involved in pain relief
Endorphins
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A complex protein that is manufactured by cells
Enzyme
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Process by which structure of neurotransmitter is altered so it can no longer act on a receptor
Enzymatic degradation
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A neuron that carries information from the senses to the central nervous system
Afferent (sensory) neurons
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A neuron carries messages from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body
Efferent (motor) neuron
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A neuron found in the center of the spinal cord that receives information from the afferent neurons and sends commands to the muscles through the efferent neurons. make up the bulk of the neurons in the brain
Interneuron
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The connection of the afferent neurons to the interneurons to the efferent neurons, resulting in a reflex action
Reflex arc
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The ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma
Neuroplasticity
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Special cells found in all the tissues of the body that are capable of manufacturing other cell types when those cells need to be replaced due to damage or wear and tear
Stem cells
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Nerves coming from the sensory organs to the central nervous system consisting of afferent neurons
Sensory pathway
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Nerves coming from the central nervous system to the voluntary muscles, consisting of efferent neurons
Motor pathway
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Glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream
Endocrine glands
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Chemicals released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands
Hormones
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Gland location in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and influences all other hormone secreting glands also known as the master gland
Pituitary gland
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Endocrine gland located near the base of the cerebrum; secretes melatonin
Pineal gland
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Endocrine gland found in the neck; regulates metabolism
Thyroid gland
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Endocrine gland; controls the levels of sugar in the blood
Pancreas
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Sex glands; secrete hormones that regulate sexual development and behavior as well as reproduction
Gonads
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The female gonads
Ovaries
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The male gonads
Testes
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Endocrine glands located on top of each kidney that secrete over 30 different hormones to deal with stress, regulates salt intake, and provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting the sexual changes that occur during adolescence
Adrenal glands
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Insertion of a thin, insulated wire into the brain through which an electrical current is sent that destroys the brain cells at the tip of the wire
Deep lesioning
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Brain imaging method using computer-controlled x-rays of the brain
Computed tomography (CT)
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Brain imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain
Magnetic resonance imaging MRI
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Machine designed to record the electroencephalogram
Electroencephalogram EEG
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The brain imaging method in which a radioactive sugar is injected into a person and a computer compiles a color-coded image of the activity of the brain
Positron emission tomography PET
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Neuroimaging method that is similar to PET but uses a different radioactive tracer and can be used to examine brain blood flow
Single photon emission computed tomography SPECT
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MRI based brain imaging method that allows for functional examination of brain areas through changes in brain oxygenation
Functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI
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The first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the brain, which is responsible for life-sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate
Medulla
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The larger swelling above the medulla that connects the top of the brain to the bottom and that plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left right body coordination, and arousal
Pons
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An area of neurons running through the middle of the medulla and the pons and slightly beyond that is responsible for general attention, alertness, and arousal
Reticular formation RF
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Part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement
Cerebellum
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A group of several brain structures located primarily under the cortex and involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation
Limbic system
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Part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain, the structure relays sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex and processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper area
Thalamus
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Two projections just under the front of the brain that receives information from the receptors in the nose located just below
Olfactory bulbs
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Small structure in the brain located below the Thalamus and directly above the pituitary gland, responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex
Hypothalamus
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Curved structure located within each Temporel lobe, responsible for the formation of long-term memories and the storage of memory for location of objects
Hippocampus
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Brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory of fear
Amygdala
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Outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input
Cortex
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The two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain
Cerebral hemispheres
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Thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres
Corpus callosum
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Section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing the visual centers of the brain
Occipital lobe
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Sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for touch, taste, and temperature sensations
Parietal lobes
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Area of neurons running down the front of the parietal lobes responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, body position, and possibly taste
Somatosensory cortex
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Areas of the brain located along the side, starting just behind the temples, containing the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech
Temporal lobes
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Areas of the brain located in the front and top, responsible for higher mental processes and decision-making as well as the production of fluent speech
Frontal lobes
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Rear section of the frontal lobe, responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous system
Motor cortex
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Neurons that fire when an animal or person performs an action and also when an animal or person observes that same actions being performed by another
Mirror neurons
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Areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing
Association areas
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Condition resulting from damage to Brokas area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to pronounce words, and to speak haltingly
Brokas aphasia
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Condition resulting from damage to Wernecke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language
Wernecke's aphasia
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Condition produced most often by damage to the parietal lobe association areas of the right hemisphere resulting in an inability to recognize objects or body parts in the left visual field
Unilateral spatial neglect
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The upper part of the brain consisting of the two hemispheres and the structures that connect them
Cerebrum
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Regulates metabolism, controlling how fast the body burns it's available energy
Thyroxin
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Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine when people are under stress and that aids in sympathetic arousal
Adrenal medulla
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Produces over 30 different hormones that regulate salt intake and help initiate and control stress reaction, also provides a source of sex hormones in addition to those provided by the gonads
Adrenal cortex
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Hormones produced by the adrenal cortex that regulate salt intake and help initiate and control stress reactions also called steroids
Corticoids
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Adrenal hormone released when the body experiences stress, both physical stress and psychological stress. It is important in the release of glucose into the bloodstream during stress, providing energy for the brain itself, and in the release of fatty acids from the fat cells that provide the muscles with energy
Cortisol
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Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine when people are under stress and that aids in sympathetic arousal
Adrenal medulla
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Produces over 30 different hormones that regulate salt intake and help initiate and control stress reaction, also provides a source of sex hormones in addition to those provided by the gonads
Adrenal cortex
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Hormones produced by the adrenal cortex that regulate salt intake and help initiate and control stress reactions also called steroids
Corticoids
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Adrenal hormone released when the body experiences stress, both physical stress and psychological stress. It is important in the release of glucose into the bloodstream during stress, providing energy for the brain itself, and in the release of fatty acids from the fat cells that provide the muscles with energy
Cortisol
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The procedure of stimulating a specific area of the brain is much the same as in lesioning, but the much milder current in this research does no damage to the neurons. It does cause the neurons to react as if they had received a message
Electrical stimulation of the brain or ESB
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In this procedure, neurosurgeons place electrodes in specific deep brain areas and then route the electrode wires to a pacemaker like device called an impulse generator that is surgically implanted under the collarbone
Deep brain stimulation or DBS
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Magnetic pulses are applied to the cortex using special copper wire coils that are positioned over the head, stimulating neurons in the targeted area of the cortex
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation rTMS
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Uses scalp electrodes to pass very low amplitude direct-current to the brain to change the excitability of cortical neurons directly below the electrodes
Transcranial direct-current stimulation tDCS
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Allows researchers to estimate the concentration of specific chemicals and neurotransmitters in the brain
MRI spectroscopy
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Uses MRI technology to provide a way to measure connectivity in the brain by imaging these white matter tracts
DTI, or diffusion tensor imaging
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Very fast, irregular waves that indicate waking activity
Beta waves
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Slightly regular and slower waves that are a sign of relaxation
Alpha waves
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Waves associated with drowsiness and sleep
Theta waves
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Much slower, larger waves that indicate deep sleep
Delta waves
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Stimulates the upper part of the brain, keeping people awake and alert
Reticular activating system RAS
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The first symptoms are tremors, an unsteady walk, slurred speech, dizziness, and muscle weakness. The person suffering from this disease will eventually be unable to walk, stand, or even get a spoon to his or her own mouth
Spinocerebellar degradation
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The limbic structure that is found in the cortex above the corpus callosum in the frontal and parietal lobes, playing an important role in both emotional and cognitive processing. It has been shown to be active during a variety of cognitive tasks such as selective attention, written word recognition, and working memory
Cingulate cortex
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The increase in wrinkling of the brain as it increases in size and complexity
Corticalization
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The area of the occipital lobe that processes visual information from the eyes
Primary visual cortex
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The part of the brain that helps identify and make sense of the visual information from the eyes in the occipital lobe
Visual association cortex
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A doctor studying slides of brain tissue that first theorized in 1887 that the nervous system was made up of individual cells
Santiago Ramon y Cajal
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Accomplished the first of electroencephalogram EEG recording in humans in 1924
Hans Berger
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Famed neurologists who had a patient with a tumor in his right occipital lobe, who could still see objects perfectly well but could not identify them by sight alone
Oliver Sacks
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Two parts contained in the Temporel lobes
Primary auditory cortex and the auditory association area
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The most forward part of the frontal lobes
Pre-frontal cortex
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The middle area toward the center of the frontal lobe
Medial prefrontal cortex
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The bottom surface of the frontal lobe above the eyes
Orbitofrontal prefrontal cortex
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Suffered damage to his frontal lobe, coming to lack emotional control because of the damage to this lobes connection with the limbic system structures, particularly the amygdala
Phineas Gage
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An area of the brain in the left frontal lobe devoted to the production of speech
Broca's area
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19th century neurologist who first studied people with damage to Broca's area
Paul Broca
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Area of the brain in the left Temporal lobe that appears to be involved in understanding the meaning of words
Warnicke's area
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Physiologist who first studied problems arising from damage in Wernecke's area
Carl Wernicke
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Reported an interesting case of unilateral spatial neglect in his book, Phantoms in the Brain
Dr. V.S. Ramachandran
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Pioneer in the field of hemisphere specialization, winning a Nobel prize for his work in demonstrating that the left and right hemispheres of the brain specialize in different activities and functions
Roger Sperry
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Hemisphere of the brain specializing in language, speech, hand writing, calculations, sense of time and rhythm, and basically any kind of thought requiring analysis
Left
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Hemisphere of the brain specializing in global or widespread processing involving perception, visualization, spatial perception, recognition of patterns, faces, emotions, melodies, and expression of emotions
Right
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Student of Roger Sperry and a long time researcher in the area of brain asymmetry and cognitive neuroscience, working in brain lateralization leading to insights of the integrated mind. continues to work in related areas including human consciousness, perception, and neuroethics
Michael Gazzaniga
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Your teacher asked you to describe the sequence of parts for neuron that the impulse travels during neural conduction.
Dendrites, soma, axon, synaptic knob
