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MCAT Biology > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

gene

A

series of DNA nucleotides that generally codes for the production of a single polypeptide or mRNA, tRNA, or rRNA

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2
Q

eukaryotes

A

have more than one copy of one gene

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3
Q

prokaryotes

A

have one copy of each gene

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4
Q

genome

A

entire DNA sequence of an organism

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5
Q

Central Dogma

A

DNA is transcribed to RNA which is translated to AA forming a protein

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6
Q

DNA

A

polymer of nucleotides

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7
Q

Purines

A

adenine and guanine – two ring structures

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8
Q

pyrimidines

A

cytosine and thymine – single ring structures

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9
Q

phosphodiester bonds

A

how nucleotides are bound to each other – btwn the 3rd carbon of one deoxyribose and the phosphate backbond of a single strand of DNA

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10
Q

5’-3’ directionality

A

3’ carbon attached to an -OH group and the 5’ carbon is attached to a phosphate group

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11
Q

anti parallel, double stranded

A

two DNA strands lie side by side in opposite 3’->5’ directions, bound together by H bonds btwn nitrogeneous bases to form a structure

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12
Q

base pairing

A

this hydrogen bonding is commonly referred to as ___

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13
Q

length of DNA measured in

A

bp

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14
Q

complementary strands

A

purine-pyrimidine pairs adenine and thymine and guanine and cytosine

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15
Q

double helix

A

when complementary strands bind together

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16
Q

DNA replication is semi conservatice

A

new double strand created, contains one strand from the originial DNA and one newly synthesized strand

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17
Q

bidirectional process

A

two replisomes proceed in opposite directions along the chromosome making replication a _____ process

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18
Q

DNA polymerase

A

enzyme that builds the new DNA strand, only add nucleotides to an exisiting strand

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19
Q

primer

A

primase creates an RNA ____ approximately 10 ribonucleotides long to initate the strand

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20
Q

lagging strand

A

made up of Okazaki fragments

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21
Q

DNA ligase

A

ties Okazaki fragments together

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22
Q

semidiscontinuous

A

since the lagging strand replication is fragmented

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23
Q

leading strand

A

continuous new strand

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24
Q

replication steps

A

helicase unzips , rna polymerase builds a primer, dna polymerase assembles the leading and lagging strands, primers are removed, okazaki fragments are joined

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25
Q

telomeres

A

repeated 6 nucleotide units that protect chromosomes from being eroded through repeated rounds of replication

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26
Q

RNA

A

has a hydroxyl group attached, single stranded, contains pyrimidine uracil, not confined to the nucleus

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27
Q

mRNA

A

delivers DNA coded for AA to the cyotosol where the proteins are manufactured

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28
Q

rRNA

A

combines with proteins to form ribosomes, synthesized in the nucleolus

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29
Q

tRNA

A

transfer RNA, collects AA in the cytosol and transfers them to the ribosomes for incorporation into a protein

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30
Q

transcription

A

RNA is manufactured from a DNA template

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31
Q

intiatition

A

beginning of transcription, a group of proteins called iniation factors finds a promter on the DNA strand, and assembles a transciption iniation complex which includes RNA polymerase

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32
Q

RNA polymerase

A

prokaryotes have one, eukaryotes have three

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33
Q

promoter

A

a sequences of DNA nucleotides that designates a beginning point for transcription

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34
Q

elongation

A

RNA polymerase transcibes only one strand of the DNA nucleotide sequence into a complementary RNA nucleotide sequence

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35
Q

termination

A

requires special termination sequence and special proteins to dissociate RNA polymerase from DNA

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36
Q

activators and repressors

A

bing DNA close to the promoter and either activate or repress the activity of RNA polymerase; often allosterically regulated by small molecules such as cAMP

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37
Q

operon

A

genetic unit consisting of the operator, promoter, and genes that contribute to a single prokaryotic mRNA

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38
Q

primary transcript

A

addition of nucleotides; deletion of nucleotides; modification of nitrogenous bases

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39
Q

5’ cap

A

5’ end is capped in a process using ATP; serves as an attachment site in protein synthesis and as a protection against degradation of exonucleases

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40
Q

poly A

A

3’ end is poladenylated with a ___ to protect against exonucleases

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41
Q

introns and exons

A

primary transctipt is cleaved into introns and exons; introns stay in nucleus, exons exit nucleus to be translated

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42
Q

snRNPs

A

recogonize nucleotides sequences at the ends of the introns

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43
Q

spliceosome

A

several snRNPs+ proteins; introns cut out and exons are put together – makes single mRNA

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44
Q

denatured

A

when heated, put in high concentration salt solution or high pH solution, h bonds are disrupted and the two strands of the double helix are separated

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45
Q

nucleic acid hybridization

A

DNA-DNA, DNA-RNA, RNA-RNA ; enable scientists to identify nucleotide sequences by binding a known sequence with an unknown sequence

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46
Q

restriction enzymes

A

cut nucleic acid only at certain nucleotide sequences along the chain

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47
Q

palindromic sequence

A

restriction site will be a ______ _____ four to six nucleotides long

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48
Q

recombinant DNA

A

artifically recombined DNA, DNA fragments cleaved by the same endonucleaes can be joined together regardless of the origin of the DNA

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49
Q

vector

A

what to use to insert DNA into a bacteria

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50
Q

plasmid

A

what recombinant DNA could be placed into

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51
Q

clone

A

large quantity of DNA containing the vector with the recombinant DNA fragment

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52
Q

library

A

clones can be saved separately producing a clone _____

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53
Q

screened

A

Libraries can be ___ for the appropriate clones, that have the appropriate resistances

54
Q

probe

A

radioactively labeled complementary sequence of the desired DNA fragment

55
Q

complementary DNA

A

mRNA is produced by the DNA is reverse transcribed using reserve transciptase

56
Q

PCR

A

double strand DNA amplified placed in a mixture with many copies of two DNA primers, mixture is heated and cooled; heat resistant polyermase is added, amplifies the comp strands which double amount of DNA, exponential increase of DNA

57
Q

anneal

A

hybridize; to their complementary ends of the DNA strands

58
Q

southern blotting

A

DNA to be identified is cleaved into restriction fragments; fragments move according to size by gel electrophoresis, large frags move more slowly, gel is made alkaline to denature DNA, membrane used to blot the gel that transfers the single strand DNA onto the membrane, probe with nucleotide sequence complementary to the target fragment is added to the membrane, add probe made from DNA or RNA; visualize with radiographic film

59
Q

northern blot

A

identifies RNA fragments v

60
Q

western blot

A

detect a protein with antibodies

61
Q

RFLP

A

identified individual as opposed to identifying specific genes

62
Q

genetic code

A

translates the DNA nucleotides sequence into an AA sequence that ultimately form into a protein

63
Q

degenerative

A

more than one series of 3 nucleotides may code for any AA

64
Q

unambiguous

A

single series of 3 nucleotides will code for one AA

65
Q

almost univeresal

A

nearely every living organism uses the same code

66
Q

codon

A

3 consecutive nucleotides on a strand of mRNA

67
Q

stop codons

A

UAA, UGA and UAG

68
Q

start codon

A

AUG

70
Q

anticodon

A

tRNA contains a set of nucleotides that is complementary to the codon

71
Q

ribosome

A

rRNA with protein, provides site for translation to take place

72
Q

small and large subunit

A

made from rRNA and many separate proteins, assembled in nucleolus, exported to the cytoplasm

73
Q

nucleolus

A

complex structure of ribomsomes requires this

74
Q

P site

A

tRNA with 5’-CAU-3’ anticodon sequesters the AA methionine and settles in at the

75
Q

iniation complex

A

large subunit to join and form the

76
Q

iniation

A

tRNA and large subunit coming together

77
Q

elognation

A

tRNA with its AA attaches to A site at the expense of two GTP

78
Q

translocation

A

ribosome shifts 3 nucleotides along the mRNA toward the 3’end , the first tRNA moves toward E site where it can exit the ribosome

79
Q

termination

A

translation ends when a stop codon is reached. release factors bing to the A site allowing a water moleculte to add to the of the polypeptide chain, polypeptide is freed from the tRNA and the ribosome, ribosome breaks up its subunits to be used again

80
Q

post translational modification

A

sugar, lipids or phosphate groups may be added to AA ,

81
Q

translation location

A

may happen in the cytosol or the ribosome may attach itself to rough ER and inject proteins into the ER lumen,

82
Q

mutation

A

alteration in the genome that is not genetic recombination

83
Q

gene mutation

A

alteration in the sequence of DNA molecules in a single gene

84
Q

chromosomal mutation

A

when structure of chromosome is changed

85
Q

mutagens

A

mutations arising from chemical agents

86
Q

point mutation

A

mutation changes a single base pait

87
Q

base pair substitution mutation

A

one base pair is replaced by another

88
Q

missense mutation

A

base pair mutation that occurs in the AA coding sequence of a protein

89
Q

frameshift mutation

A

when deletions or insertions occur in multiples other than three

90
Q

nonsense mutation

A

base pair substitution or an insertion or deletion that creates a stop codon

91
Q

chromosomal deletion

A

when a portion of the chromosome breaks off, or when a protion of the chromosome is lost during homologus recombination and/or crossing over events

92
Q

duplications

A

when a DNA fragment breaks free of one chromosome and incorporates into a homologous chromosome

93
Q

translocation

A

segment of DNA is inserted into another chromosome

94
Q

inversion

A

orientation of DNA is reversed on a chromsome

95
Q

transpons/transposable elements

A

excise themselves from a chromosome and reinsert themselves at another location; can cotain one gene, several genes or just a control element; how somatic cell can alter its genetic makeup without meiosis

96
Q

forward mutation or backward mutation

A

change organism back to original – wildtype or make it further away from wildtype

97
Q

cancer

A

uncontrolled growth of cells

98
Q

oncogenes

A

genes that cause cancer

99
Q

carcinogens

A

mutagens that can cause cancer

100
Q

nucleosome

A

eight histones wrapped in DNA

101
Q

chromatin

A

entire DNA/ protein complex

102
Q

histones

A

DNA that are not in use are wrapped tightly around globular poteins

103
Q

somatic cells

A

46 double stranded DNA molecules

104
Q

chromosome

A

chromatin associated with each one of these molecules

105
Q

homologous

A

each chromose possess a partner that codes for the same traits as itself–gene might be different, both eye color one is blue eyes other is brown eyes

106
Q

diploid

A

any cell that cotains homologous pairs

107
Q

haploid

A

any cell that does not contain homologues

108
Q

interphase

A

G1, S and G2

109
Q

G1

A

cell just split, cell grows in size, RNA sythensis and protein synthesis are very active, usually longest stage

110
Q

S phase

A

cell devote energery to replicating DNA, chromosome exactly duplicated, each chromsome is made of two identical sister chromatids

111
Q

G0

A

nongrowing state, allows for difference in lenth of the cell cycle, mature neurons and muscle cells remain in G0 permamently

112
Q

G2

A

cell prepares to divide, cellular oganelles continue to duplicate, G2 checkpoint checks for mitosis promoting factor

113
Q

mitosis

A

nuclear division without genetic change

114
Q

prophase

A

codensation of chromatin into chromosomes, centrioles move to poosite ends of the cell, spindle appartus begins to form consisting of aster

115
Q

metaphase

A

chromosoms align along the equator of the cell

116
Q

anaphase

A

sister chromatids split at their attaching centromeres

117
Q

cytokinesis

A

actual separationo of the cellular cytoplasm due to constriction of microfilaments about the center of cell may start at the end of ana phase

118
Q

telephase

A

nuclear membrane reforms followed by the reformation of the nucleolus

119
Q

meiosis

A

double nuclear divison which produce 4 haploid gametes/germ cells

120
Q

spermatogonium and oogonium

A

human cells that undergo meiois

121
Q

primary oocyte

A

arrested at this stage in females until puberty; undergoes first divison before ovulation to become secondary oocyte

122
Q

2nd oocyte and sperms

A

stimulates anaphase II in the oocye

123
Q

prophase I

A

homologous chromsomes lines up along side each other; exchange DNA nucleotides in a process called crossing over, genetic recombination– 4 chromatids – tetrads

124
Q

linked

A

genes located on a chromsome are more likely to cross over together

125
Q

metaphase I

A

homoloues remain atached, move to metaphase plate

126
Q

anaphase 1

A

separates homologues from their partners

127
Q

telpehase 1

A

nucelear membrane may or may not reform, cytokinesis may occur

128
Q

2nd spermatocyes and oocytes

A

if cytokinesis occurs

129
Q

polar body

A

from 2nd ooctye much smaller and degenerates

130
Q

meiosis 1

A

reduction division

131
Q

meiosis II

A

same is mitosis, final product 4 sperm cells, single oovum

132
Q

nondisjuction

A

during anaphase I or 2 centromere of chromosome does not split

MCAT Biology (7 decks)

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