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A&P 1 > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Alpha particle

A

2 protons and 2 neutrons / equivalent to a Helium nucleus

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2
Q

Beta particle

A

Free electron

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3
Q

Physical half-life

A

The time required for 50% of its atoms to decay to a more stable state

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4
Q

Biological half-life of a radioisotope

A

Time required for half of it to disappear from the body/ by radioactive decay and by excretion

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5
Q

Ion

A

Charged particle with unequal number of protons and electrons

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6
Q

Electrolytes

A

Substances that ionize in water (axis, bases, and salts) and form solutions capable of conducting electricity

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7
Q

Free radicals

A

Chemical particles with an odd number of electrons

Ex. O_2^- / 2 Oxygens with an extra electron

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8
Q

Ionizing radiation

A

Radiation that ejects electrons from atoms, converting atoms to ions / in high doses, it can be mutagenic and carcinogenic

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9
Q

Antioxidant

A

Chemical that neutralizes free radicals

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10
Q

Molecular weight (MW)

A

MW of a compound is the sum of the atomic weights of its atoms (amu)

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11
Q

Ionic bond

A

Attraction of a cation to an anion

Ex: Na+ and Cl-

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12
Q

Covalent bonds

A

Form by the sharing of electrons

Ex: H_2

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13
Q

Hydrogen bonds

A

Weak attraction / slightly+ Hydrogen and slightly- Oxygen or Nitrogen

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14
Q

Van dee Waals forces

A

Weak, brief attractions between neutral atoms b/c of fluctuations in electron movements / plastic wrap / works in large pieces

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15
Q

Compound

A

???

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16
Q

Solvency

A

The ability to dissolve other chemicals

Water is the “universal solvent”

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17
Q

Hydrophilic

A

Able to dissolve in water

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18
Q

Hydrophobic

A

Substances that do not dissolve in water

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19
Q

Adhesion

A

The tendency of one substance to cling to another

Water adheres to the body’s tissues and forms a lubricating film

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20
Q

Cohesion

A

The tendency of molecules of the same substance to cling to each other
Water creates an elastic layer on top called Surface Film held together by Surface Tension

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21
Q

Chemical reactivity of water

A

It’s ability to participate in chemical reactions
Water Ionizes chemicals such as acids and salts / also ionizes itself to take part in Hydrolysis and Dehydration Synthesis

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22
Q

Thermal stability

A

TS of water helps to stabilize the internal temperature of the body. It results from high Heat Capacity of water(amount of heat required to raise the Temp 1•C)

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23
Q

calorie (cal)

A

1 cal is the amount of heat that raises the temperature of 1 g of water 1•C

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24
Q

Solution

A 
Consists of particles of matter (solute) mixed with a more abundant substance (solvent)(usually water)
Particles are under 1 nm
Do not scatter light much/ transparent
Pass through most sel.perm.membr
Does not settle
Ex: glucose in blood
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25
Q

Colloid

A 
1-100 nanometers in size
Scatter light so are usually cloudy
Cannot pass through semiperm.membr
Permanently mixed
Ex: albumin in plasma (proteins in H2o)
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26
Q

Suspension

A 
Ex: blood
Suspended particles exceed 100nm
Cloudy or opaque
Too large to pass through s-p-membr.
Not permanently suspended
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27
Q

Emulsion

A

Suspension of a liquid in another

Blood/ mothers milk

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28
Q

Molarity (M)

A

of moles per liter of solution

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29
Q

Milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L)

electrolytes in our body fluids

A

Millimolar concentration of an electrolyte times valence of the ion

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30
Q

Acid

A

Proton donor, a molecule that releases an H+ in water

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31
Q

Base

A

Proton acceptor / or hydroxide (OH) donor

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32
Q

pH

A

Derived from [molarity] of H+

pH is the negative log of hydrogen ion molarity

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33
Q

Buffers

A

Chemical solutions that resist changes in pH / weak acid/ weak base

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34
Q

Ion trapping / pH partitioning

A

An uncharged compound such as aspirin is in the acid of the stomach, it passes easily through the cell membrane to the blood; but when it hits the more basic pH of the blood, it ionizes and gets trapped in the bloodstream

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35
Q

Energy / kinetic / potential

A

The capacity to do work
energy of motion, energy to do work
Energy contained in an object b/c of its position or internal state but that is not doing work at the time

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36
Q

To do work

A

To move something, whether it is a muscle or a molecule

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37
Q

Chemical energy

A

Potential energy stored in the bonds of molecules

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38
Q

Heat

A

The kinetic energy of molecular motion/ temp is the measure of rate of this motion

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39
Q

Electromagnetic energy

A

Kinetic energy of moving “packets” of radiation called “photons”
Ex: light

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40
Q

Electrical energy

A

Kinetic and potential forms
Potential energy when in a battery
Kinetic when they begin to move or generate electrical current

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41
Q

Free energy

A

Potential energy available in a system to do useful work

Ex: in human physiology, the energy stored in the chemical bonds of organic molecules

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42
Q

Chemical reaction

A

Process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken
Has reactants and products
Affected by: concentration, temperature, and catalysts

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43
Q

Law of Mass Action

A

Reversible reactions proceed from the reactants in greater quantity to the substances with the lesser quantity

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44
Q

Metabolism

A

All chemical reactions in the body
Catabolism
Anabolism

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45
Q

Catabolism

A

Consists of energy-releasing decomposition reactions

E-releasing reactions are “exergonic”

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46
Q

Anabolism

A

Energy-storing synthesis reactions
Ex: production of protein and fat
“Endergonic”

47
Q

Oxidation

A

Reaction in which a molecule give up electrons and releases energy
Receiver of the electron is oxidizing agent

48
Q

Reduction reaction

A

Molecule gains electrons and energy

When molecule accepts electrons it is reduced / the one that donates them is the reducing agent

49
Q

Carbon backbones

A

Long chains, branched molecules, and rings

Can form H-, O-, N-, S- covalent bonds

50
Q

Hydroxyl group

A

-OH

Sugars/alcohols

51
Q

Methyl

A

-CH3

Fats, oils, steroids, amino acids

52
Q

Carboxyl group

A

-COOH

Amino acids, sugars, proteins

53
Q

Amino

A

-NH2

Amino acids, proteins

54
Q

Phosphate

A

-H2PO4

Nucleus acids, ATP

55
Q

Polymers

A

Molecules made of a repetitive series of identical or similar subunits called “Monomers”
Formation is “polymerization”

56
Q

Dehydration synthesis (condensation)

A

Living cells achieving polymerization by this means

Hydroxyl group removed from one monomer and a H from another producing water as a by-product

57
Q

Hydrolysis

A

Opposite of dehydration
Water molecules ionize into OH- and H+, breaking the covalent bond

All digestion consists of these

58
Q

Carbohydrate

A

Hydrophilic organic molecule with the general formula (CH2O)n where n represents the number of carbon atoms

59
Q

Monosaccharides

C6 H12 O6 -first three

A 
Glucose - blood sugar
Fructose - fruit sugar/converted to glucose
Galactose - converted to glucose
Ribose - 
Deoxyribose -
60
Q

Disaccharides

A

Two monosaccharides/ breaks down
Sucrose (Gl+Fr) - table sugar
Lactose (Gl+Ga) - milk sugar/babies
Maltose (Gl+Gl) - starch digestion

61
Q

Oligosaccharides

A

Short chains of 3+ monosacc.

62
Q

Polysaccharides

A

Long chains of monosacc. (50+ish)

63
Q

Glycogen

A

Energy-storage polysaccharide made by cells of the liver, muscles, brain, uterus, and vagina
Only polysaccharide found in human tissue

64
Q

Starch

A

Energy-storage polysaccharide of plants
From sunlight and nutrients
Only significant digestible polysaccharide in the human diet

65
Q

Cellulose

A

Structural polysaccharide that gives strength to the cell walls of plants
We cannot digest but it is important roughage, swelling with water and moving things along

66
Q

Carbohydrates…

A
  • are often conjugated with (covalently bound to) proteins and lipids
  • those pr. and li. On the outside edge form glycolipids and glycoproteins
67
Q

Glycoproteins

A

Conjugated carbohydrate

Component of the cell surface coat and mucus…

68
Q

Glycolipids

A

Conjugated carbohydrate

Component of cell surface coat

69
Q

Proteoglycan

A

Conjugated carbohydrate
Cell adhesion; lubrication; supportive filler of some tissues and organs
Have a protein moiety and dominant carbohydrate moiety

70
Q

Moiety

A

Each component of conjugated molecules

71
Q

Lipid

A

Hydrophobic organic molecule, usually composed of only C+H+O with a high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen
Less oxidized than carbs and so has more cals/g

72
Q

Fatty acid

A

Chain of usually 4-24 C atoms with a carboxyl group at one end and a methyl group at the other
Saturated - as much H as possible
Unsaturated - some double covalent bonds / Polyunsaturated - many C=C
Precursor of triglycerides; energy source

73
Q

Essential fatty acids

A

Must be obtained from the diet b/c we cannot synthesize them

74
Q

Bile acids

A

Steroids that aid in fat digestion and nutrient absorption

75
Q

Cholesterol

A

Components of cell membranes; precursor of other steroids

76
Q

Eicosanoids

A

20-C compounds derived from fatty acid called arachidonic acid
Chemical messengers between cells
Ex: prostaglandins

77
Q

Fat-soluble vitamins

A

A, D, E and K

Involved in a variety of functions including blood clotting, wound healing, vision, and calcium absorption

78
Q

Phospholipids

A

Two fatty acids attached to the glycerol which is attached to other fx groups
Major component of cell membranes; aid in fat digestion
Amphipathic (hydrophilic/hydrophobic)

79
Q

Steroid hormones

A

Chemical messengers between cells

80
Q

Triglycerides

A

3-C alcohol (glycerol) linked to 3 fatty acids
Energy storage; thermal insulation; filling space; binding organs together; cushioning organs
a.k.a. Triacylglycerols; “neutral fats”
Formed by dehydration synthesis

81
Q

Describe the connection between trams fats and cardiovascular health

A

Trams fats pack more tightly together, resist enzymatic breakdown, remain in circulation longer, and have more tendency to deposit in the arteries than saturated and cis -unsaturated fats

82
Q

Amphipathic

A

Molecule that is Hydrophobic and hydrophilic

83
Q

Prostaglandins

A

5 of the carbons of an eicosanoid are arranged in a ring

Signaling roles in inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contractions, ctrl of blood vessel diameter, etc.

84
Q

Steroid

A

Lipid with 17 of its carbon atoms arranged in four rings, 3 6-sided rings and a 5-sided
Cholesterol is the precursor to other steroids

85
Q

Define good and bad cholesterol

A

Bad cholesterol is actually droplets in the blood called lipoproteins, which are a complex of chol, fat, phospholipids, and protein. “Bad” chol is low-density lipoprotein (LDL) w/ high ratio of lipid to protein. “Good” chol is high-density L (HDL) w/ lower ratio of lipid to protein and may help to prevent cardiovascular disease

86
Q

Protein

A

Polymer of 50+ amino acids
Often amphiphilic
Extreme heat or pH can cause denaturation, making the protein unable to perform its normal function
(SOMEtimes reversible)

87
Q

Amino acid

A

Central C atom with an amino (-NH3) and a carboxyl (-COOH) group bound to it and an -R group distinct to each amino acid

88
Q

Peptide

A

Any molecule composed of 2+ amino acids joined by peptide bonds

89
Q

Peptide bond

A

Formed by dehydration synthesis, joins the amino group of one amino acid to the carboxyl group of the next
Dipeptides
Tripeptides
Oligopeptides(

90
Q

Conformation

A

3D shape

Even slight change in conformation of a protein may destroy protein fx

91
Q

Primary structure of proteins

A

Protein’s sequence of amino acids, encoded in genes

92
Q

Secondary structure

A

Coiled or folded shape held together by hydrogen bonds between the slightly negative C=O group of one peptide bond and the slightly positive N-H group of another some distance away
Alpha helix, beta sheet

93
Q

Tertiary structure of proteins

A

Further bending and folding of proteins into various globular and fibrous shapes
Hydrophobic radicals associating with each other/ hydrophilic radicals attracted to surrounding water
Van der Waals significant here
Disulfide bridges

94
Q

Quaternary structure of proteins

A

Association of 2+ polypeptide chains by non-covalent forces such as ionic bonds and hydrophilic/-phobic interactions

95
Q

Prosthetic group

A

Conjugated proteins have this non-amino acid moiety covalently bound to it
Ex: hemoglobin
In quaternary structure

96
Q

Protein fx: structure

A

Ex: Keratin, for nails, hair, and skin surface

Collagen, for deep skin, bones, cartilage, and teeth

97
Q

Protein fx: communication

A

Some hormones and other cell-to-cell signals, receptors of signals

Ligand: hormone or other molecule that reversible binds to a protein

98
Q

Protein fx: membrane transport

A

Govern and facilitate concerning this

99
Q

Protein fx: catalysts

A

Most metabolic pathways of the body are controlled by enzymes, globular proteins that function as catalysts

100
Q

Recognition and protection

A

Glycoproteins work in immune recognition

101
Q

Protein fx: movement

A

The base for movement, great and small/ some are “motor proteins”

102
Q

Protein fx: cell adhesion

A

Bind cells to each other : sperm to egg, immune cells to cancer cells, keeping tissues from falling apart

103
Q

Enzymes

A

Proteins that function as biological catalysts

Named by the substance it will act upon (substrate)

104
Q

How are enzymes, like CK-1, CK-2, LDH-1, and LDH-5, used as disease markers?

A

Enzymes have slightly different forms, isoenzymes. They come in different forms depending on where they are in the body. When that part of the body is diseased, that form of that enzyme increases its presence, which can be tested to come up with a diagnosis.

105
Q

Activation energy

A

The catalyst lowers the activation energy, the energy required to complete the reaction.

106
Q

Enzyme structure and action

A

Substrate molecule binds to the enzyme at the active site; they form an enzyme-substrate complex
(lock and key)
Enzyme changes shape a tiny bit to fit the substrate; enzyme breaks the bond and the reaction completes, releasing.

107
Q

Enzyme-substrate specificity

A

Enzyme can only fit one substrate

108
Q

Cofactors

A

Circa 2/3 of human enzymes require a non protein partner called a cofactors. Iron, copper, zinc, etc. are inorganic.

109
Q

Coenzymes

A

organic cofactors usually derived from niacin, riboflavin, and other water-soluble vitamins.
Shuttles the electrons from one substrate to another to finish a process.

110
Q

Metabolic pathway

A

A chain of reactions with each step usually catalyzed by a different enzyme

111
Q

Nucleotides

A

Organic compounds with three principle components: single or double C-N ring called a nitrogenous base, a monosaccharide, and 1+ phosphate groups
Ex: ATP

112
Q

ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)

A

Body’s most important energy-transfer molecule

113
Q

ATPases

A

Specialized enzymes for hydrolyzing the third phosphate, where the energy is stored

114
Q

Think about an argument for the use of steroids for legitimate uses and against the use of steroids for athletic performance enhancement

A

…

A&P 1 (6 decks)

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