Chapter 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the one-dimensional model?
A
A model that contributes the causes of behaviour to a single cause.
Example: Driving phobia due to a crash.
2
Q
What is the multidimensional model?
A
The causes of behaviour are due to an interaction between multiple factors: the biology and behaviour of the individual, as well as the cognitive, emotional, social, and cultural dimensions.
3
Q
What are the 5 main influences that lead to the development of a disorder in an individual?
A
1) Behavioural 2) Biological 3) Emotional 4) Social 5) Developmental
4
Q
What is generalizing to other situations?
A
If you do poorly on your first exam you may develop a phobia that you will do bad on all of them.
5
Q
What kind of influence is having a parent with a blood injury injection phobia?
A
Biological influence.
6
Q
What kind of influence can lead to the development of many disorders?
A
Emotional influence.
7
Q
What kind of influence is it when an authority figure dismissed your problem making your anxiety disorder worse?
A
Social influence.
8
Q
What kind of influence is it when a disorder did not develop until a critical period?
A
Developmental influence.
9
Q
What are the three components of the triangle we spoke about in class?
A
1) Thoughts 2) Feelings 3) Behaviours
10
Q
What is most important when arriving at the causative factors of disorders?
A
Considering the interaction of various factors and considering all possible causes.
11
Q
How many chromosomes do humans have?
A
46 (23 pairs).
12
Q
In each chromosome pair, there is one chromosome from?
A
The mother and the father.
13
Q
What are the first 22 pairs of chromosomes called and what is their role?
A
Autosomes, they have the instructions for the development of the body and brain.
14
Q
What do the 23rd pair of chromosomes determine?
A
An individual’s biological sex.
15
Q
What makes up a chromosome?
A
DNA molecules containing nucleotides in various base pair arrangements.
16
Q
What would a DNA sequence that defines a gene be called?
A
Coding DNA.
17
Q
What is required for a gene to be expressed?
A
1) DNA transcribed into RNA 2) RNA translated into protein 3) Post translational mods to make functional.
18
Q
What is a specific location on a chromosome that codes for a gene known as?
A
A genetic locus.
19
Q
What can cause genetic abnormalities?
A
Wrong ordering of genes and abnormal sex chromosome pairing.
20
Q
What does polygenic mean?
A
Most of our behaviour, our personality, and even our cognitive skills are influenced by many genes.
21
Q
True or false? Most psychological disorders are polygenic.
A
True.
22
Q
What is an individual’s complete set of genes known as?
A
Their genome.
23
Q
What are three technologies that allow for scientists to analyze thousands of genes at once?
A
1) Quantitative genetics 2) Molecular genetics 3) DNA microarrays.
24
Q
True or false: Every cell in the body contains the same complete set of DNA?
A
True.
25
How do cells become specialized for different functions?
Different types of cells express different sets of genes, depending on their function and role in the body through the process of differentiation.
26
What does the study with rat pups tell us about gene expression?
That environmental factors also contribute.
27
What has been newly found about genes and behaviour?
Estimates attribute about half of individual differences in personality, cognitive, and emotional traits, and psychological disorders, is due to genetic influence.
28
What is the diathesis stress model?
A hypothesis that both an inherited tendency/diathesis (a vulnerability) and specific stressful conditions are required to produce a disorder.
29
According to the diathesis stress model, someone with a higher genetic vulnerability will be less likely to develop a disorder when stressors are introduced?
False, they are more likely to develop a disorder.
30
What is the criticism of the Diathesis Stress Model?
It may be based on a biased publication of results as researchers have not been able to replicate any gene effects in depression.
31
What is the Gene-Environment Correlation model?
The hypothesis that people with a genetic predisposition for a disorder may also have a genetic tendency to create environmental risk factors that promote the disorder.
32
What is similar between the Gene-environment correlation model and the diathesis-stress model?
Both models consider genetic predispositions and both take the environment into account.
33
What is epigenetics?
Epigenetics is like a set of instructions on top of your DNA that tells your genes when, where, and how much to work.
34
What may telomere length be a positive marker for?
Ageing.
35
What is the difference between inhibitory and excitatory NTs?
Inhibitory: Decrease the likelihood that the connecting neuron will fire. Excitatory: Increase the likelihood that the connecting neuron will fire.
36
What makes up the hindbrain?
Medulla, pons, cerebellum.
37
What makes up the midbrain?
The reticular activating system (RAS).
38
What is the RAS regulating?
Arousal, tension, waking/sleeping.
39
What is the top of the brainstem and the forebrain made up of?
The thalamus, hypothalamus, the limbic system and the cerebral cortex.
40
What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?
Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal.
41
Check your understanding of the structures of the brain by listing which is being described: Movement, breathing, and sleeping depend on this ancient part of the brain, which is present in most animals.
Brain stem.
42
Check your understanding of the structures of the brain by listing which is being described: This area contains parts of the reticular activating system and coordinates movement with sensory output.
Midbrain.
43
Check your understanding of the structures of the brain by listing which is being described: More than 80 percent of the neurons in the human central nervous system are contained in this part of the brain, which gives us distinct qualities.
Cerebral cortex.
44
Check your understanding of the structures of the brain by listing which is being described: This area is responsible for most of our memory, thinking, and reasoning capabilities, and makes us social animals.
Frontal lobe.
45
What are the divisions of the peripheral nervous system and their roles?
Somatic (Voluntary movement, muscles) and Autonomic (Involuntary movement, heart, stomach, endocrine system).
46
What happens when the sympathetic NS is activated?
The heart beats faster, thereby increasing the flow of blood to the muscles; respiration increases, allowing more oxygen to get into the blood and brain; and the adrenal glands are stimulated.
47
What is the HPA axis?
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis.
48
What are brain circuits?
Pathways for NTs in the brain.
49
What are three ways neurotransmitter production can be manipulated?
1) Agonists: Increase NT effects 2) Antagonists: Block NT effects 3) Inverse agonists: Produce opposite effects to the NT.
50
What is reuptake?
After a NT is released it is quickly drawn back up into the discharging neuron after being released into the synaptic cleft.
51
What are the two major inhibitory and excitatory NTs?
Glutamate: Excitatory, GABA: Inhibitory.
52
What class of drugs has been found to make it easier for GABA to bind and inhibit neurons?
Benzodiazepines.
53
What category of NTs are Glutamate and GABA?
Amino acid NTs.
54
What category of NT is serotonin?
Monoamine.
55
How many major circuits does serotonin have?
6.
56
How may serotonin interact with GABA?
Interacts to counteract glutamate.
57
What does the serotonin system regulate?
Behaviour, moods, and thought processes.
58
What category of NT is norepinephrine?
Monoamine.
59
What 2 groups of receptors does norepinephrine stimulate?
Alpha-adrenergic and beta-adrenergic receptors.
60
What do beta blocker drugs do?
These drugs block the beta-receptors so that their response to a surge of norepinephrine is reduced.
61
Do norepinephrine circuits act in a general or specific way to modulate behavior?
They act in a more general way.
62
What class of NT is dopamine?
Monoamine.
63
NE and dopamine are also called?
Catecholamines.
64
Dopamine has been implicated in the pathophysiology of what disorders?
-Schizophrenia -Disorders of addiction -Depression -ADHD.
65
What does reserpine do?
Block specific dopamine receptors, thus lowering dopamine activity.
66
What can dopamine be described as?
A switch that turns on various brain circuits associated with certain types of behaviour.
67
Dopamine circuits often cross with what circuit?
Serotonin.
68
What kind of behaviours is dopamine associated with?
Exploratory, outgoing, pleasure-seeking behaviours.
69
Check your understanding of the major functions of four important neurotransmitters: Which neurotransmitter binds to neuron receptor sites, inhibiting postsynaptic activity?
GABA.
70
Check your understanding of the major functions of four important neurotransmitters: Which neurotransmitter is a switch that turns on various brain circuits?
Dopamine.
71
Check your understanding of the major functions of four important neurotransmitters: Which neurotransmitter seems to be involved in your emergency reactions or alarm responses?
Norepinephrine.
72
Check your understanding of the major functions of four important neurotransmitters: Which neurotransmitter is believed to influence the way we process information and to moderate or inhibit our behaviour?
Serotonin.
73
What structure of the brain has been found to have increased activity in those with OCD?
Part of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex called the orbital surface.
74
Note: It is also possible that activity in this area may simply be a result of the repetitive thinking and ritualistic behaviour that characterizes OCD, rather than a cause.
Note.
75
Psychological disorders are a mix of what three types of symptoms?
-Emotional -Behavioural -Cognitive.
76
Note: Today, neuroscientists focus much more on the connectivity between certain brain areas than on the activity of any particular brain region that might be associated with a specific mental disorder.
Note.
77
Is it possible to get at this brain circuit without either surgery or drugs?
Yes.
78
What is exposure and response prevention?
Individuals are gradually exposed to their feared stimuli while resisting engaging in compulsions.
79
What was found in patients with OCD after behaviour response prevention was used?
They discovered that the brain circuit had been changed (made more typical) by a psychological intervention.
80
In a study comparing drug therapy vs CBT, what was found?
Both treatment groups showed some overlapping brain changes.
81
What are the distinct mechanisms of CBT and Venlafaxine?
CBT: Facilitated top-down changes, starting in the cortex and influencing emotional brain areas. Venlafaxine: Worked in a bottom-up manner, affecting deeper brain regions first and later reaching the cortex.
82
True or false: NTs have different effects on individuals based on their psychological histories/experiences.
True.
83
True or false: The very structure of the nervous system is constantly changing as a result of learning and experience.
True.
84
What are microbiota?
Microbes in our intestine.
85
How do bacteria in our gut influence our mental health?
Bacteria in the gut secrete messenger molecules that travel through the blood to the brain.
86
What is the psychobiome?
The brain-gut connection.
87
What does the classical conditioning result demonstrate?
How the classical conditioning conditions facilitate learning of relationships among events.
88
If we experience classical conditioning and learn relationships, what is it?
Beneficial.
89
How do bacteria in our gut influence our mental health?
Bacteria can produce inflammation, which could play a key role in many psychological disorders.
90
What does classical conditioning demonstrate about learning?
It facilitates learning of relationships among events.
91
What is the outcome of experiencing classical conditioning?
We will make judgements of relationships and our responses will be beneficial to us.
92
What is learned helplessness?
A condition in which a person suffers from a sense of powerlessness, arising from a traumatic event or persistent failure to succeed.
93
How can positive psychology benefit us?
We cope better with stress if optimistic; those with positive attitudes live 7.5 years longer than others.
94
What did Albert Bandura observe in observational learning?
They can learn just as much by observing what happens to someone else in a given situation, known as modelling.
95
What is Albert Bandura's social learning theory?
Much of what we learn depends on our interactions with other people around us.
96
What is prepared learning?
How we have become highly prepared for learning about certain types of objects or situations through evolution.
97
What is the idea of blind sight?
When someone who is blind by nature or hypnotism can reach for something accurately without awareness or memory of their visual abilities.
98
What is implicit memory?
A condition of memory in which a person cannot recall past events even though he or she acts in response to them.
99
What is an example of implicit memory?
Someone clearly acts based on things that have happened in the past but can't remember the events.
100
What is explicit memory?
Good memory for events.
101
What is implicit cognition?
Cognitive processes of the unconscious that are difficult to measure because people cannot verbalize them.
102
What is the main goal of CBT?
Identifying and modifying faulty thought processes, attitudes, and problem behaviours, known as cognitive restructuring.
103
What is rational emotive therapy?
It focuses directly on the irrational beliefs thought to be at the root of maladaptive feelings and behaviour.
104
What is self-instructional training?
Modifying what clients say to themselves about the consequences of their behaviour.
105
What are the descriptions of learned helplessness, modelling, prepared learning, and implicit memory?
1) Modelling: Karen noticed that every time Devon behaved well at lunch, the teacher praised him. 2) Learned helplessness: Jin stopped trying to please his father because he never knows whether his father will be proud or outraged. 3) Implicit memory: Greg fell into a lake as a baby and almost drowned. 4) Prepared learning: Céline was scared to death of the tarantula, even though she knew it wasn't likely to hurt her.
106
What happens to the body when we are scared?
The cardiovascular system is activated, blood vessels constrict, hair stands up, and pupils dilate.
107
Why do these physiological changes happen during the flight or flight response?
To prepare the body for survival.
108
What is emotion?
A tendency to behave in a certain way elicited by an external event and a feeling state, accompanied by a characteristic physiological response.
109
What is the difference between emotion and mood?
Emotion is short-lived and a response to an external event; mood is more persistent.
110
What is affect in relation to emotion?
The momentary emotional tone that accompanies what we say or do.
111
What three components comprise emotion?
1) Behaviour (Patterns) 2) Physiology (Cognitive processes for processing emotion) 3) Cognition (Processing the world around you).
112
What does suppressing emotional responses cause?
Increases sympathetic nervous system activity, which may contribute to psychological problems.
113
What demonstrates how fear is influenced by social environment and culture?
Susto, where individuals believe they have become the object of black magic or witchcraft.
114
What are the effects of gender roles on psychological disorders?
Men are more likely to hide or endure fear, leading to different expressions of psychological disorders.
115
How may gender roles contribute to explaining why depression is more common in women?
Women tend to ruminate and blame themselves, while men engage in activities to distract themselves.
116
True or false: Women respond better to psychological treatment than men?
True.
117
What is richness of life related to?
Life expectancy.
118
What is related to social phobia and depressive disorder?
Low number of interpersonal contacts.
119
What influences the expression of psychological disorders across cultures?
Social and interpersonal context.
120
What are some social and interpersonal influences on older adults?
Those with fewer meaningful contacts and less social support had higher levels of depression.
121
What may influence your vulnerability to stress and psychological problems?
Depending on what stage of development you are in life.
122
How many major crises do we go through in our lives according to Erik Erikson?
8.
123
What is the concept of equifinality?
A behaviour or disorder may have several different causes.
