Chapter 2

Question 1

What is a theory?

Answer 1

set of principles that explains, organizes, and predicts behaviour and events

misinterpreted term for “hunch”

Question 2

What is the purpose of a theory?

Answer 2

• guide research
• organize knowledge
• yield testable hypotheses

Question 3

What is the Cognitive Dissonance Theory?

What was the hypothesis for this theory?

does this actually happen?

Answer 3

explains how people react when aware of inconsistencies in their thoughts, attitudes and behaviours

hypothesis: when made aware of hypocritical behaviour, a person will change their behaviour (to align with belief)

belief:bad to text & drive
action:does it still
aware:accident
now stop

Question 4

Theory construction is a ____ process

Answer 4

gradual

Question 5

A theory gains acceptance when alternative hypotheses are ______

the opposite occurs when:

Answer 5

falsified

fail to replicate or error design

Question 6

What is the observational method?

Answer 6

describe a sample/population, to document their characteristics

Question 7

the observational method is not concerned with:

Answer 7

cause and effect
- not explain why something occurs but what is occuring

Question 8

what are the two types of observational research?

Answer 8

naturalistic observation and archival research

Question 9

what is naturalistic observation?

Answer 9

researcher observes and records behaviour without intervening

Question 10

example of naturalistic observation experiment? results

Answer 10

gender differences in interruptions by tape-recorded conversations in public places

results: 96% of interruptions made by men

Question 11

when would you use naturalistic observation?

Answer 11

when unethical/unpractical to experiment

want people to be honest when unknowingly observed

Question 12

what is the issue with naturalistic observation?

Answer 12

unethical bc researcher watches interactions w/out asking and ask after interaction

Question 13

What is an archival research?

Answer 13

consult archival/old records like magazines and newspapers

Question 14

what is an example of archival research? what was the result

Answer 14

analyzed content of statements made by mass shooters from 1966-2012
- assessed motivations: many is motivated by fame
- similarly orchestrated crimes due to publicity

result: reduce media coverage, images and perpetrator name mentionings

Question 15

what is correlational research?

Answer 15

examine the relationship between two non- manipulated variables, where one variable predicts the other

Question 16

What is a positive correlation?

Answer 16

increases in value of one variable are associated with increases in value of another

Question 17

What is a negative correlation?

Answer 17

increases in value of one variable associated with decrease in value of another

Question 18

are correlational studies causal conclusions?

Answer 18

Correlation does not imply causation
ex. missing class doesn’t necessarily cause lower grades

Question 19

what

what is the correlation coefficient?

Answer 19

r
ranges from -1 to 1
close to 1 = higher correlation

Question 20

Experimental Research involves…

Answer 20

the manipulation of one or more independent variables (I.V.)

Question 21

Effect of I.V.(s) measured on one or more ________________ variables

Answer 21

dependent

Question 22

experimental research represents the most…

Answer 22

reliable source of evidence in evaluating research

Question 23

what are the advantages of experimental research?

Answer 23

• generate cause and effect conclusions
• better control over extraneous variables

Question 24

what are extraneous variables?

Answer 24

variables other than the I.V. that might influence the D.V.

Question 25

What is random assignment?

Answer 25

aspect of experimental research when Each P in the study has an equal chance of being in any condition, the variation due to natural differences cancel out

Question 26

What is internal validity?

Answer 26

ensuring that ONLY the IVs influences the D.V.

Question 27

What is external validity

Answer 27

the degree to which the conclusions in your study generalize to other people and other situations (other cultures, types of people)

Question 28

How can you ensure internal validity?

Answer 28

random assignment and use of control group

Question 29

What are the issues with experimental research?

Answer 29

1. challenging to conduct an experiment in which internal and external validity are both high
2. difficult to replicate (flawed methods or societal changes over time)

Question 30

what did the issues in replicating experiments lead to?

Answer 30

more rigourous experiments

Question 31

What is hindsight bias?

Answer 31

tendency to believe a er learning about some outcome that you could have predicted it

Question 32

What is a thought experiment?

Answer 32

thinking through how you could test if actually performing the test is unethical/resources are insufficient

Question 33

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 33

A prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances

Question 34

what is a theory?

Answer 34

A set of related propositions intended to describe some phenomena or aspect of the world

Question 35

What is dissonance theory?

Answer 35

People like their thoughts to be consistent with one another and with their actions.
- people will do a lot of metal work to achieve this cognitive consistency

Question 36

What are surveys?

Answer 36

Type of psychological study by asking people questions in interviews or written questionnaires
- they must represent the the target population as a whole

Question 37

What is the difference between random samples and convenience samples?

Answer 37

Random: likely capture the proportions of given types of people in the population as a whole

Convenience: can produce proportions that are severely skewed away from the actual proportions in the population as a whole (may be biased)

Question 38

What is correlational research?

Answer 38

Measure 2+ variables and determine if they are related

Question 39

What is experimental research?

Answer 39

Correlational research + make inference about why a relationship exists

Question 40

Correlation does not…

Answer 40

Establish causation

Question 41

What is self-selection?

Answer 41

In correlational research, the situation in which the participant, rather than the researcher determines the participant’s level of each variable

Question 42

What is a third variable?

Answer 42

A variable, often unmeasured in correlational research that can be the actual explanation for the relationship between the two measured variables

Question 43

What is a longitudinal study?

Answer 43

A study conducted at different points in time with the same participants

Question 44

What is an independent variable?

Answer 44

In correlational research, this variable is measured

In experimental research this variable is manipulated (hypothesized to be the cause of a particular outcome)

Question 45

What is a dependent variable?

Answer 45

In experimental research, the variable is measured
Hypothesized to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable

Question 46

What is control condition?

Answer 46

A condition comparable to experimental conditions except the one ingredient hypothesized to produce the expected effect on the dependent variable