Chapter 2 Flashcards
What is a theory?
set of principles that explains, organizes, and predicts behaviour and events
misinterpreted term for “hunch”
What is the purpose of a theory?
- guide research
- organize knowledge
- yield testable hypotheses
What is the Cognitive Dissonance Theory?
What was the hypothesis for this theory?
does this actually happen?
explains how people react when aware of inconsistencies in their thoughts, attitudes and behaviours
hypothesis: when made aware of hypocritical behaviour, a person will change their behaviour (to align with belief)
belief:bad to text & drive
action:does it still
aware:accident
now stop
Theory construction is a ____ process
gradual
A theory gains acceptance when alternative hypotheses are ______
the opposite occurs when:
falsified
fail to replicate or error design
What is the observational method?
describe a sample/population, to document their characteristics
the observational method is not concerned with:
cause and effect
- not explain why something occurs but what is occuring
what are the two types of observational research?
naturalistic observation and archival research
what is naturalistic observation?
researcher observes and records behaviour without intervening
example of naturalistic observation experiment? results
gender differences in interruptions by tape-recorded conversations in public places
results: 96% of interruptions made by men
when would you use naturalistic observation?
when unethical/unpractical to experiment
want people to be honest when unknowingly observed
what is the issue with naturalistic observation?
unethical bc researcher watches interactions w/out asking and ask after interaction
What is an archival research?
consult archival/old records like magazines and newspapers
what is an example of archival research? what was the result
analyzed content of statements made by mass shooters from 1966-2012
- assessed motivations: many is motivated by fame
- similarly orchestrated crimes due to publicity
result: reduce media coverage, images and perpetrator name mentionings
what is correlational research?
examine the relationship between two non- manipulated variables, where one variable predicts the other
What is a positive correlation?
increases in value of one variable are associated with increases in value of another
What is a negative correlation?
increases in value of one variable associated with decrease in value of another
are correlational studies causal conclusions?
Correlation does not imply causation
ex. missing class doesn’t necessarily cause lower grades
what
what is the correlation coefficient?
r
ranges from -1 to 1
close to 1 = higher correlation
Experimental Research involves…
the manipulation of one or more independent variables (I.V.)
Effect of I.V.(s) measured on one or more ________________ variables
dependent
experimental research represents the most…
reliable source of evidence in evaluating research
what are the advantages of experimental research?
- generate cause and effect conclusions
- better control over extraneous variables
what are extraneous variables?
variables other than the I.V. that might influence the D.V.
What is random assignment?
aspect of experimental research when Each P in the study has an equal chance of being in any condition, the variation due to natural differences cancel out
What is internal validity?
ensuring that ONLY the IVs influences the D.V.
What is external validity
the degree to which the conclusions in your study generalize to other people and other situations (other cultures, types of people)
How can you ensure internal validity?
random assignment and use of control group
What are the issues with experimental research?
- challenging to conduct an experiment in which internal and external validity are both high
- difficult to replicate (flawed methods or societal changes over time)
what did the issues in replicating experiments lead to?
more rigourous experiments
What is hindsight bias?
tendency to believe a er learning about some outcome that you could have predicted it
What is a thought experiment?
thinking through how you could test if actually performing the test is unethical/resources are insufficient
What is a hypothesis?
A prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances
what is a theory?
A set of related propositions intended to describe some phenomena or aspect of the world
What is dissonance theory?
People like their thoughts to be consistent with one another and with their actions.
- people will do a lot of metal work to achieve this cognitive consistency
What are surveys?
Type of psychological study by asking people questions in interviews or written questionnaires
- they must represent the the target population as a whole
What is the difference between random samples and convenience samples?
Random: likely capture the proportions of given types of people in the population as a whole
Convenience: can produce proportions that are severely skewed away from the actual proportions in the population as a whole (may be biased)
What is correlational research?
Measure 2+ variables and determine if they are related
What is experimental research?
Correlational research + make inference about why a relationship exists
Correlation does not…
Establish causation
What is self-selection?
In correlational research, the situation in which the participant, rather than the researcher determines the participant’s level of each variable
What is a third variable?
A variable, often unmeasured in correlational research that can be the actual explanation for the relationship between the two measured variables
What is a longitudinal study?
A study conducted at different points in time with the same participants
What is an independent variable?
In correlational research, this variable is measured
In experimental research this variable is manipulated (hypothesized to be the cause of a particular outcome)
What is a dependent variable?
In experimental research, the variable is measured
Hypothesized to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable
What is control condition?
A condition comparable to experimental conditions except the one ingredient hypothesized to produce the expected effect on the dependent variable
