Chapter 2

Question 1

Evolutionary Perspectives

Answer 1

use principles from evolutionary biology to explain why certain patterns of social behaviour na psychological mechanisms have evolved in animals/humans
-sociobiology: some social behaviours are a result of evolution that benefited our ancestors
evolution (producing viable healthy offspring) occurs via natural selection (best adapted individuals survive and pass on thier genes)

Question 2

how do humans choose mates

Answer 2

physical attractiveness and physique and complexion may provide hints to the health of the individual in order to have maximum reproductive health
if this is true then it should be even more important in mate selection in societies where more people are unhealthy which is true
in this way showing off at the pool or getting engaged are similar to animal courtship rituals
ie. men pay for dinner and spend money to show they can support a family

Question 3

Several obstacles before reproductive success

Answer 3

ie. infant vulnerability and maternal death and father protects from harm
two mechanisms that facilitate these conditions are a pair-bond between mother and father and attachment between infant and parent
therefore offsprings chance of survival can depend on how strong these attachments are

Question 4

canadian fathers invest more in own children or stepchildren or firends children equally

Answer 4

more willing for own children which makes sense with the high rates of divorce and remarriage

Question 5

stimuli and preferred sex

Answer 5

men show physiological sexual arousal to their preferred sexual partner
female show physiological sexual arousal to both preferred and unpreferred sex partners, and even stimuli of animals
maybe the automatic lubrication has been naturally selected for to reduce risk of injury during sex with a range of stimuli

Question 6

Darwin also proposed sexual selection

Answer 6

definition: selection that results from differences in traits affecting access to mates.
two processes: competition among members of one gender (usually males) for mating access to members of the other gender AND preferential choice by members of one gender (usually females) for certain members of the other gender
therefore men show off in various ways more often than females

Question 7

criticisms of sociobiology:

Answer 7

outdated basis, individual struggles rather than species survival, and that the central function of sex is reproduction
ie. playboy models hips are getting skinnier which doesnt present an evolutionary advantage

Question 8

evolutionary psychology

Answer 8

how natural selection has shaped psychological mechanisms and processes aka the mind over how it has shaped it directly
women compete with other women so those who are sexually available for males short-term goals negatively affects women pursuing long term strategy
those with short term goals would choose sexier clothing three or more days before or sevevn days after ovulation

Question 9

criticism of evolutionary psychology

Answer 9

research leads to suggest male and females are very similar in their stated mating preference, both prefer long term
characteristics that seem to have adaptive significance may just be design flaws
most data testing comes from WEIRD societies and undergraduate students = hard to test universality

Question 10

Gender-Neutral evolutionary theory

Answer 10

no fixed gender differences
more adaptive to be flexible in behaviours
some males are masculine dominant in certain situations then feminine dominant, therefore fixed mating strategies are not beneficial across these situations
= does lead to higher reproductive success
too new
also accounts for transgendered persons

Question 11

Psychoanalytic theory

Answer 11

sex as one of key forces in human life
sex energy = libido death energy = thanatos = two major forces of motivation

Question 12

Id, Ego, Superego

Answer 12

Id: basic part of the personality, present at birth, the reservoir of physic energy, operates on the pleasure principle, irrational
ego: develops a few years later, reality principle, tries to keep Id in line, realistic, rational interactions with others
superego: develops last as a child learns moral values, the consciousness, the values and ideals of society that we learn, operates on idealism, to inhibit the impulses of the id and to persuade the ego to strive for moral goals rather than just realistic ones

Question 13

erogenous zones

Answer 13

an area sensitive to stimulation where libido energy is focused

Question 14

Stages of psychosexual development

Answer 14

birth-1: oral stage, pleasure from sucking or stimulation of mouth and lips, put anything in thier mouth
2: anal stage, elimination of feces
3-5/6: phallic stage, pleasure from genitals, development of the oedipus complex
adolescence: latency stage, sexual urges are repressed, resolution of oedipus complex
puberty: genital stage, all oral, anal, and genital urges come together for biological reproduction

Question 15

Oedipus complex

Answer 15

hostility towards father as a competing male for the mother, fear the father will castrate son in retaliation, this anxiety becomes so great he instead identifies with his father - key factor of personality development
female oedipus complex: (electra complex) girls love for her mother, realizes she does not have a penis and suffers from penis envy, resolved when she identifies with her mother and switches zones from clitoris to vagina to have kids

Question 16

Evaluation of Freuds theory

Answer 16

most concepts can not be evaluated scientifically due to the unconscious aspects
fMRI invention allows us now to evaluate the unconscious
his data is from patients who sought therapy from him
male-centered theory, females are inferior
vaginal orgasm vs clitoral orgasm
too much biological determinants
Karen horney termed the concept of womb envy

Question 17

Classical conditioning

Answer 17

Pavlov
US
UR
CS
CR

Question 18

Operant conditioning

Answer 18

Skinner
the operant
reward or punishment
primary reinforcers
most effective when occur immediately after the behaviour
punishments are less effective in shaping behaviour (can hide behaviour to avoid punishment)
psychoanalytic (fixed in childhood) learning thoery (learned and changed throughout life)

Question 19

behaviour therapy

Answer 19

based on principles of classical or operant conditioning to change behaviour
do not care about unconscious mechanisms for behaviour
CBT

Question 20

Social Learning theory

Answer 20

Bandura
operant conditioning but also other processes like imitation (how children acquire stereotypical behaviour) and observational learning (even of sexual behaviour from parents or movies)

social cognitive theory: adds cognitive processes such as self-efficacy due to successful experiences with an activity over time ie. using condoms after practice

Question 21

Melanesia and same-sex sexual activity

Answer 21

boys have homosexual intercourse with an older man to “finish off” childhood development

Question 22

social exchange theory

Answer 22

emerged out of social learning theory
reinforcement for satisfaction, stability, and change in relationships among people and sexuality in close relationships
freedom of choice, every action has some rewards and entails certain costs
therefore we try to maximize rewards and minimize costs
social. relationships as primary exchange of rewards and costs
relationships only if they provide favourable conditions
comparison level: the level of outcomes in the best alternative relationship called the comparison levels for alternatives
can be applied to personal relationships, less costs = more likely to stay together
a central concept is equity = balance of rewards and costs for both individuals in the relationship, if not equal may engage in extradyadic sex (sex with others)
also explains partner selection, sexual frequency, and sexual satisfaction
critized for applying the ideas of rewards and costs for close relationships (should not be about what one gets out of a relationship) and that it downplays other motivations
what about selfless behaviours

Question 23

cognitive revolution

Answer 23

1980s-90s to study the way people perceive and think not just directly observable behaviours

Question 24

Cognition and sexuality

Answer 24

basic assumption that what we think influences what we feel
important in how we evaluate sexual events makes all the difference ie. erectile dysfunction normal or impeding and orgasm therefore more likely to experience sexual problems when they have sex again
explains the cycle of sexual arousal and fetishes, and the treatment of sexual disorders

Question 25

gender schema theory

Answer 25

Bem
to explain gender role development and the impact of gender on daily lives and thinking
a schema is a general knowledge framework that a person has about a particular topic, organizes and guides perception, helps us remember but also distorts our memory
all of us possess a gender schema
children learn appropriate roles for each gender and important to understand reality
recalling genders engaging in activities both normal and abnormal or their gender, often switch the gender in recalling to fit their gender schema
can influence everyday behaviours ie. what we look at in magazines, biological sex influenced magazine and gender schema influenced what they read in the selected magazines
stereotypes are slow to change

Question 26

since 1990, what new perspective has emerged

Answer 26

social constructionist viewpoint
these behaviours are social constructions
more interested in understanding how these categories are created and their consequences
feminist theory and queer theory

Question 27

Feminist theory

Answer 27

proposed by many independent scholars
gender as status and inequality: just as race and social class are, men tend to have higher power
this can be seen at many levels within society (parliament to workplace) inequality of power
sexual assault is demonstration of this power
sexuality: central issue in this theory ie. sexual assault, abortion, birth control, sexual harassment on the job etc. womens sexuality is repressed and depressed
gender roles and socialization: children are socialized to conform with the well-defined gender roles in society, which is in agreement with social learning theory, feminists argue we are better off without gender roles as they restrict our actions and future careers
intersectionality: experiences of women are not all the same, same with men, it is the aproach that says we should simultaneously consider a person’s multiple group memberships and identities, all these indentities intersect and are a part of the person

Question 28

Performativity

Answer 28

the ways in which we perform gender or sexuality based on societys norms, much as actors perform in a play ie. women wear dresses and jewelry
authentic feelings vs performance (ie. kissing another women in a bar)

Question 29

Queer theory

Answer 29

repurposed term for a positive meaning
broader than just the topic of sexual orientation but also topics considered deviant like intersex and transgender
questions the social categorization of sexuality and gender and binaries and criticizes the separation of genders as if they have no similarities, not fixed for individuals but fluidity
another definition is anything that deviates from the norm, what is categorized as normal vs abnormal - heteronormativity (this is the only pattern of sexuality that is normal) social norms privilege heterosexuals and marginalize the minorities

Question 30

sociologists

Answer 30

the ways in which society or culture shapes human sexuality

Question 31

Sexual scripts

Answer 31

sexual behaviour is the result of extensive prior learning that teaches us sexual etiquette and how to interpret situations
the who, what, when, and why of sexual behaviour
the plans people carry around and to help people remember what they have done in the past
researchers may ask college students to describe a typical hook up
results reflect contemporary gender roles, men were more likely to provide the script than females
though these scripts follow these sexual scripts, what each person talks specifically about and how they fool around are slightly different
when watching a movie where two characters kiss and get underdressed then the scene changes, one assumes they had sexual intercourse from their script - tells us the meaning we attach to a particular sexual event

Question 32

Social institutions

Answer 32

3 basic assumptions:
- every society regulates the sexuality of its members
- basic institutions of society affect the rules governing sexuality in that society (ie. religion, economy, medicine etc.)
- the appropriateness or inappropriateness of a particular sexual behaviour depends on the institutional context in which it occurs

Question 33

procreational idealogy of religion

Answer 33

Christians and the belief sex is for procreation only so homosexuality is wrong

Question 34

Economy

Answer 34

industrial revolution had men working more hours outside the home therefore easier to cheat etc
increased amount of prostitution

Question 35

Relational ideology of families

Answer 35

triple linkage of love, marriage and sex was born
sex outside of marriage became accepted if in a loving relationship
profound force on sexuality through its socialization of children

Question 36

medicalization of sexuality

Answer 36

masturbation was initially termed as unhealthy, now it is recommended as a HEALTHY TREATMENT
babies now born in hospitals rather than at home - therapeutic ideology
2 components: certain behaviours are defined in terms of health and illness, and problematic behaviours requiring treatment ie. impotence meds

Question 37

The law

Answer 37

• laws determines norms, what is normal Canadas criminal code vs each state in the US with their own laws
• basis for the mechanisms for social control, they specify punishments for deviations
• relfects the interests of the powerful, dominant groups in society
• possibly sexisms as well which is rooted deep in western culture