Chapter 19 Flashcards
What are the components of the cardiovascular system?
Blood, heart, veins and arteries.
What is the fluid component of the cardiovascular system called?
Blood
Explain how the blood transports carbon dioxide and oxygen to and from cells.
It transports oxygen from lungs to peripheral tissues and carbon dioxide from those tissues back to the lungs.
How does the blood restrict fluid loss at injury sites?
It contains enzymes and other substances that cause blood clotting at an open wound. These clotting factors seal the open sites and reduce blood loss temporarily.
How does the blood play a role in defense against toxins and pathogens?
Through the transport of white blood cells and antibodies. It transports white blood cells, specialized cells that migrate into other tissues to fight infections or remove debris. They also deliver antibodies, which attack foreign cells.
How does the blood play a role in stabilization of body temperature?
Blood absorbs heat generated by active skeletal muscles and distributes it to other tissues.
How does blood play a role when body temperature is too low?
Warm blood is directed toward brain and other temperature sensitive organs.
How does the blood play a role if the body temperature is too high?
The heat that the blood absorbs is lost across surface of skin.
Blood is a type of ___________.
Connective tissue fluid.
How does blood regulate pH and ions?
It absorbs and neutralizes acids produces by active tissues, such as lactic acid produced by skeletal muscles.
What is the blood temperature?
38C (100.4F), slightly above normal body temperature.
What is the pH of blood?
Slightly alkaline (7.35-7.45)
How viscous is blood?
5x more viscous than water.
The viscosity of blood can be attributed to?
Interactions among dissolved proteins, formed elements, and water molecules in plasma.
Who (males or females) tend to have more blood and why?
Males, because blood is generally about 7% of body weight, and since males generally weigh more, they have more blood.
The process of producing formed elements is called:
Hemopoiesis
What is a major difference between plasma and interstitial fluid?
Interstitial fluid has no proteins.
What is fractionation?
The process of separating whole blood into plasma and formed elements for clinical analysis.
What are formed elements?
All cells and solids in the blood: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets.
What is plasma?
Fluid consisting of water, dissolved plasma proteins, various clotting factors, and other solutes.
What is the main component in plasma?
More than 90% of plasma is water.
Blood is mostly made up of?
Plasma: makes up 50-60% of blood
What are the proteins found in plasma?
Albumins(60%)
globulins(35%)
fibrinogen(4%)
Which type of protein is most abundant in plasma?
Albumins (60%)
What is the purpose of albumins?
Found in plasma. It’s a type of plasma proteins that transport substances such as fatty acids, thyroid hormones, and steroid hormones.
What is another name for globulins?
Immunoglobulins
What is the second most abundant type of protein in the plasma?
Globulins (35%)
What is the least abundant type of protein in plasma?
Fibrinogen (4%)
What is the purpose of globulins in plasma?
Antibodies also called immunoglobulin.
Transport globulins bind small ions, hormones, and other substances.
What is the purpose of fibrinogen?
Involved in clotting.
Produce long, insoluble strands of fibrin.
The liquid part of blood that is left once dissolved fibrinogen is converted to solid fibrin is called?
Serum.
What is the difference between serum and plasma?
Plasma has dissolved fibrinogen and calcium ions and other materials whereas serum does not.
What are the remaining 1% of plasma protein composed of?
Specialized plasma proteins whose levels vary widely.
Where are most plasma proteins synthesized?
In the liver.
Which type of plasma proteins are synthesized in the liver?
All albumins and fibrinogen, most globulins.
How can liver disorders alter the composition of blood?
Since the liver is responsible for the synthesis of over 90% of plasma proteins, liver disorders can alter the composition and functional properties of blood.
Where are plasma proteins synthesized?
90% by liver
Antibodies made by plasma cells(specialized WBCs)
Peptide hormones made by endocrine organs
What is the most abundant type of formed elements?
Red blood cells (99.9%)
What gives blood its deep red color?
The red pigment hemoglobin in red blood cells.
What is the purpose of hemoglobin?
It binds oxygen and carbon dioxide.
What are the three types of formed elements and purpose of each?
Red blood cells - transport oxygen
White blood cells - immunity
Platelets - cell fragments involved in clotting
What is the most common sampling technique for collecting blood for clinical analysis?
Venipuncture
What are some advantages of venipuncture?
Ease of location of superficial veins
Walls of veins are thinner than walls of arteries
Blood pressure in the venous system is relatively low, which allows for quick sealing of the puncture wound.
What is arterial puncture used for?
To check the efficiency of gas exchange at the lungs.
How are blood tests done on infants and newborns?
By puncturing their heels.
What type of way is used to collect blood to study each type of formed element?
Peripheral capillaries (smear made from a small drop of blood from tip of finger, ear lobe, the great toe, or heels of infants)
Who has more red blood cells, males or females?
Males
The percent of a blood sample that consists of formed elements is called:
Hematocrit
What is the average number of red blood cells in 1 microliter of whole blood?
Male: 4.5-6 million
Female: 4- 5.5 million
Why do red blood cells have the shape that they do?
This shape increases surface area! This means increased circulation and absorption of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
What is the average life of a red blood cell?
About 120 days
What is the purpose of the shape of red blood cells?
I crease surface area, enables them to form stacks to allow for smooth flow through narrow vessels, and enables them to bend and flex.
What is the stacking of red blood cells called?
Rouleaux
Do red blood cells have organelles?
No, they lose their organelles during differentiation.
What is hemoglobin?
Protein that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Is the normal range of hemoglobin higher in men or women?
Men
Explain the structure of hemoglobin.
It is a quaternary structure. It has 2 alpha and 2 beta subunits. Each subunit contains one molecule of heme, which is a nonprotein that surrounds a single ion of iron.
If the iron ion on heme is bound to oxygen it is called _________.
Oxyhemoglobin
When the iron ion on heme isn’t bound to oxygen, it is called ____________.
deoxyhemoglobin
What is the strongest type of hemoglobin?
Fetal hemoglobin because it needs to take oxygen from mother’s hemoglobin.
Peripheral capillaries are low in _____ and high in ________, while the opposite is true for lung capillaries.
Oxygen, carbon dioxide
When hemoglobin binds to carbon dioxide and carries it to the lungs, it is called _________.
Carbaminohemoglobin
What is thalassemia?
Inability to produce adequate amount of alpha and beta chain subunits of hemoglobin.
Sickle cell anemia results from what?
A mutation affecting the amino acid sequence of the beta chains of the hemoglobin molecule.
When a mutation in one of the amino acids in the beta chain of hemoglobin occurs, it is called:
Sickle cell anemia.
What can be used to treat sickle cell anemia and thalassemia?
Synthetically produced infant hemoglobin because it binds to oxygen much better.
Explain the effects of sickle cell anemia.
If the cells are oxygenated well, they appear normal.
If the cells are not oxygenated well, the interactions between the defective molecules makes the RBCs fragile and stiff. A circulatory blockage occurs because the can no longer bend, making the nearby tissues oxygen starved.
How many RBCs wear out each day?
1% of circulating RBCs (that’s about 3 million per second)
What are effects of thalassemia?
Slows RBC production, mature RBCs are fragile and short lived. Reduces oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
Must undergo regular blood transfusions.
Macrophages of the ________,__________, and ___________ engulf RBCs before their membranes rupture.
Liver, spleen, and bone marrow
What happens when hemoglobin is broken down into components?
Globular proteins –> amino acids
Heme –> biliverdin
Iron
Hemoglobin breakdown products in urine due to excess hemolysis in bloodstream is called __________.
Hemoglobinuria
What is hematuria?
Whole RBCs in urine due to kidney/tissue damage
Hematuria is a result of _______.
Kidney/tissue damage
What is erythropoiesis?
RBC production
This occurs only in myeloid process(red bone marrow).
Erythropoiesis
In erythropoiesis, ___________ mature to become RBCs.
Stem cells
What is hemocytoblasts?
When stem cells in myeloid tissue divide to produce either myeloid stem cells or lymphoid stem cells
Myeloid stem cells become ________.
Lymphoid stem cells become ________.
Myeloid stem cells => RBCs
Lymphoid stem cells => lymphocytes
Building RBCs requires:
Amino acids, iron, folic acid, and vitamins B6 and B12
What is pernicious anemia?
Due to unavailability of vitamin B12. Causes low RBC production.
This is secreted when oxygen in peripheral tissues is too low.
Erythropoietin(EPO)
When oxygen in peripheral tissues is low, it is called _______.
Hypoxia
How can synthetic hormones damage the heart?
Because it makes the blood more viscous, which causes the blood to pump harder.
How is blood type determined?
By presence/absence of RNC surface antigens A, B, or D(Rh)
What are the 4 blood types?
A, B, AB, and O
If you have type A blood, you have surface antigen ___ and antibodies to antigen ___.
Have surface antigen A
Have antibodies to antigen B
The Rh factor is called ______.
D antigen
Which antibodies are present from birth and which are not?
Antibodies A and B are present from birth if one has them, but anti-Rh antibodies only become present once a person is sensitized.
What happens when a transfusion reaction occurs?
Plasma antibody meets its surface antigen. Blood will agglutinate and hemolyze. This only occurs if blood donor and acceptor are not compatible.
When the mother’s antibodies go and attack fetal RBCs as foreign bodies, it is called ________.
HDN (erythroblastis fetalis)
What happens when an Rh- mother carries an Rh+ baby?
The mother can become sensitized at birth and subsequent pregnancies could be dangerous.
What is often administered to pregnant woman during 3 months of first pregnancy to prevent maternal sensitization?
RhoGam
What is the purpose of RhoGam?
RhoGam kills the fetal RBCs in maternal blood stream.
What is a highly successful therapy to prevent HDN mortality?
Administration of RhoGam during 3 months of mother’s first pregnancy.
What are plasma expanders used for?
To increase the blood volume temporarily.
How are plasma expanders helpful?
Buy time while waiting for right blood type.
Doesn’t change the oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
Easy to store.
What is another name for red blood cells?
Erythrocytes
What is another name for white blood cells?
Leukocytes
Do white blood cells have hemoglobin?
No
What are some differences between WBCs and RBCs?
White blood cells have nuclei and other organelles whereas RBCs don’t.
Function is different.
RBCs have hemoglobin whereas WBCs don’t.
What are the main purposes of WBCs?
Defend against pathogens, remove wastes and toxins, attack abnormal cells
What are the 5 types of white blood cells?
Basophils Eosinophils Neutrophils Monocytes Lymphocytes
Where are most white blood cells found?
Connective tissue proper, lymphoid system organs.
How many WBCs are in a microliter of blood?
5,000-10,000
Which types of WBCs are phagocytic?
Monocytes, eosinophils, neutrophils
What are some characteristics of white blood cells?
Can migrate out of bloodstream
Have amoeboid movement
Attracted to chemical stimuli (chemotaxis)
Which type of white blood cells are the most abundant?
Neutrophils(50-70% of circulating WBCs)
Which Type of white blood cells are the second most abundant?
Lymphocytes
Which type of white blood cells are the least abundant?
Basophils
Name the types of WBCs in order from least abundant to most abundant.
Basophils, eosinophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, neutrophils
Which type of white blood cells are the first to attack bacteria?
Neutrophils
Upon encountering a bacterium, a neutrophil quickly engulfs it and produces these chemicals, called bactericides, which kill it.
Hydrogen peroxide and superoxide
Dead neutrophils form the ________ associated with infected wounds.
Pus
Degranulation occurs in which type of cells?
Neutrophils
Why does degranulation occur in neutrophils?
As they engulf and digest pathogen, neutrophils produce defensins, which attacks pathogen membranes, and reduce granules in neutrophil cytoplasm.
What is another name for neutrophils and why does it have this name?
Polymorphonucleur leukocytes because it can have anywhere from 2-5 nuclei.
What are the toxic compounds excreted by eosinophils?
Nitric acid and cytotoxic enzymes.
These type of white blood cells attack large parasites.
Eosinophils
Another name for these WBCs is acidophils.
Eosinophils
How do eosinophils control inflammation?
With an enzyme that counteracts the inflammatory effects of neutrophils and mast cells.
If someone has an allergic reaction, which type of WBCs would increase?
Eosinophils
What do basophils do?
Release histamine, which reduces permeability and dilates blood vessels.
If you want to prevent blood clotting, which type of white blood cell would you use?
Basophils because they release heparin, which prevents blood clotting.
To engulf large particles and pathogens, this type of WBC is used.
Monocytes
What are the 3 classes of lymphocytes?
T cells
B cells
Natural killer (NK) cells
What do natural killer (NK) cells do?
Detect and destroy abnormal tissue cells (cancers)
What is the major difference between T cells and B cells?
T cells attack foreign cells directly whereas B cells produce antibodies that travel through blood and lymph and can attack foreign cells anywhere.
T cells are responsible for _______ immunity and B cells are responsible for _______ immunity.
T cells - cell-mediated immunity
B cells - humoral immunity
The production of lymphocytes is called _______
Lymphopoiesis
An abnormally low WBC count is called ______
Leukopenia
What is leukocytosis?
Abnormally high white blood cell count.
What is leukemia?
Extremely high white blood cell count.
All blood cells originate from ___________.
Hemocytoblasts
What is produced from hemocytoblasts?
Lymphoid stem cells and myeloid stem cells.
Lymphoid stem cells produce?
Lymphocytes
Myeloid stem cells produce?
All WBCs except lymphocytes
Where do white blood cells develop?
All except monocytes develop fully in bone marrow.
Monocytes develop into macrophages in peripheral tissues.
Name the hormones that regulate blood cell populations.
M-CSF = stimulates monocytes production G-CSF = stimulates granulocyte(neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) production GM-CSF = stimulates monocytes and granulocyte production Multi-CSF = accelerates production of granulocytes, monocytes, platelets, and RBCs
What amount of platelets are reserved for emergencies?
1/3
What are platelets?
Cell fragments involved in clotting
How long do platelets circulate for?
9-12 days
Instead of platelets, nonmammalian vertebrates have _______
Thrombocytes
What is the platelet count per microliter?
150,000-500,000
Abnormally high platelet count is called ______
Thrombocytosis
Thrombopenia is _________.
Abnormally low platelet count.
How are platelets removed?
By spleen
What are the three functions of platelets?
1) release clotting chemicals
2) temporarily patch damaged vessel walls
3) actively contract tissue after clot formation
Platelet production is called __________.
Thrombocytopoiesis
What are megakaryocytes?
Giant cells in bone marrow that manufacture platelets from cytoplasm.
What are the three types of hormonal control for platelets?
Thrombopoietin, interleukin-6, and multi-CSF
What is hemostasis?
Cessation of bleeding.
How many clotting factors are there?
13
What are the three phases of hemostasis?
1) vascular phase
2) platelet phase
3) coagulation phase
What happens during the vascular phage of hemostasis?
Vascular spasm that last for about 30 min.
- Endothelial cells contract
- Endothelial cells release chemicals and local hormones
- Endothelial plasma membranes become “sticky” to seal off blood flow.
What are endothelins?
Peptide hormones that stimulate smooth muscle contraction and epithelial cell production during the vascular phase of hemostasis.
What happens during the platelet phase?
Platelets attach to sticky endothelial surfaces, which is called platelet adhesion. Then they attach to each other, which is called platelet aggregation, and form a platelet plug, which closes small breaks. The activated platelets release clotting compounds.
When does the platelet phase begin?
15 seconds after injury
When does the coagulation phase begin?
30 or more seconds after injury.
What are the 3 pathways involved in the coagulation phase?
The extrinsic pathway, intrinsic pathway, and common pathway
Describe what happens in the extrinsic pathway.
Begins outside bloodstream. Begins with factor III(tissue factor), which then combines with calcium to form clotting factor VII. Then tissue factor complex is created.
Describe the intrinsic pathway
Begins with clotting factor XII, then with PF-3 and calcium, clotting factors VIII and IX are activated which then activate clotting factor X.
What happens during the common pathway of the coagulation phase?
Begins with activation of clotting factor X by either extrinsic or intrinsic path. It activates prothrombinase, which converts prothrombin to thrombin. Thrombin then turns fibrinogen to solid fibrin.
These are essential to the clotting process.
Calcium and vitamin K
What is clotting retraction?
Occurs after clot has formed. The platelets contract and pull torn area together. Lasts 30-60 min
What happens during fibrinolysis?
Thrombin and plasminogen activator activate plasminogen. Plasminogen produces plasmin, which digests fibrin strands. This dissolves the clot.
The slow process of dissolving a blood clot is called ________.
Fibrinolysis
Efferent vessels are also known as ________.
Arteries
Affect vessels are also known as
Veins
Where are blood vessels of cardiac muscle found?
In the interventricular sulci
