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A-Level Edexcel Chemistry > Chapter 17.1, 17.2 & 17.3 - Chirality, Carbonyls & Carboxylic acids (L) > Flashcards

Chapter 17.1, 17.2 & 17.3 - Chirality, Carbonyls & Carboxylic acids (L) Flashcards

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1
Q

What are carbonyl compounds?

A

Compounds with a C=O bond

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2
Q

What are the two types of carbonyl compounds?

A

Aldehydes and ketones

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3
Q

What is the structural difference between aldehydes and ketones?

A

In aldehydes, there is a hydrogen bonded to the carbonyl group, in ketones there is not

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4
Q

Where are aldehydes always found and what does this mean locant-wise?

A

They are always found at the start or end of the chain. This means they do not require a locant

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5
Q

Where can’t ketones be found?

A

At the end or start of the chain

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6
Q

What’s the difference between C=C and C=O bonds?

A

Carbon and oxygen have different electronegativities, meaning the C=O bond is a polar bond

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7
Q

What does the fact that C=O is a polar bond mean for reactions?

A

It means the delta positive carbon can be attacked by nucleophiles

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8
Q

How does the smell of aldehydes vary?

A

Short aldehydes = unpleasant smells

Long aldehydes = pleasant smells

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9
Q

What is the smell of short ketones?

A

Solvents

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10
Q

Out of alcohols, carbonyl compounds and alkanes, what is the order of boiling point?

A 
Highest
Alcohols
Carbonyl compounds
Alkanes
Lowest
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11
Q

Why do carbonyl compounds have a higher boiling point than alkanes?

A

Carbonyl compounds have both London and dipole-dipole intermolecular forces, whereas alkanes only have London forces

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12
Q

Why do carbonyl compounds have dipole-dipole forces and alkanes do not?

A

Because carbonyl compounds are polar, and alkanes are non-polar

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13
Q

Why do alcohols have the highest boiling point?

A

Because they can form hydrogen bonds between each other, as well as having London and dipole-dipole

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14
Q

Why can’t carbonyl compounds form hydrogen bonds despite being polar?

A

Because there are no hydrogen atoms attached directly to the oxygen

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15
Q

Why are small carbonyl compounds soluble?

A

Because they can form hydrogen bonds with water

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16
Q

What is the trend in solubility as carbonyl chain length increases and why?

A

As the chain gets longer, solubility decreases. This is because the greater number of London forces interferes with the formation of hydrogen bonds

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17
Q

Which is easier to oxidise aldehydes or ketones and why?

A

Aldehydes are very easy to oxidise because of the hydrogen atom attached to the carbonyl group. On the contrary, ketones are hard to oxidise as they have no hydrogen attached

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18
Q

How many polar bonds are present in carboxylic acids?

A

3
C=O
C-O
O-H

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19
Q

When are carboxylate ions formed?

A

When a carboxylic acid loses the H from the O-H bond

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20
Q

What is meant by chirality?

A

A molecule is called chiral if it cannot be superimposed on its mirror image by any combination of rotations and translations

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21
Q

How can you identify a chiral centre?

A

A carbon with 4 different atoms or groups attached

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22
Q

What is polarimetry?

A

The use of a polarimeter to measure the amount of optical activity

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23
Q

What does a polariser do?

A

Converts unpolarised light into plane polarised light

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24
Q

What is the structure of a carboxylate ion?

A

O
- C
O
There are two identical carbon-oxygen bonds

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25
Q

What is the smell of butanoic acid?

A

Smell of stale sweat

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26
Q

What is the boiling point of carboxylic acids in comparison to other organic compounds and why?

A

The presence of three polar bonds results in strong hydrogen bonding, which means they have a relatively high boiling point in comparison to other organic compound

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27
Q

What happens to boiling point in carboxylic acids as chain length increases and why?

A

As chain length increases, boiling point increases because the number of London forces between the non-polar hydrocarbon chains increase

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28
Q

How does solubility change in carboxylic acids as chain length increases?

A

Solubility decreases as the non-polar hydrocarbon chain increases in length, as it forms more London forces which interfer with the formation of hydrogen bonds with water molecules

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29
Q

What two organic molecules oxidise to carboxylic acids?

A

Primary alcohols and aldehydes

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30
Q

What is the method to oxidise to a carboxylic acid?

A

Primary alcohol + oxidising agent + heat under reflux

When the oxidation is complete the mixture is fractionally distilled to obtain a pure sample

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31
Q

What is the oxidising agent in oxidising to carboxylic acids?

A

Acidified potassium dichromate

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32
Q

Other than oxidation, how else can carboxylic acids be formed?

A

Nitrile + dilute acidic or alkaline conditions + heat under reflux

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33
Q

What is the formula for acidic hydrolysis to a carboxylic acid?

A

Nitrile + 2H2O + H+ -> Carboxylic acid + NH4+

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34
Q

What is initially produced in alkaline hydrolysis to a carboxylic acid, and how is this overcome?

A

A carboxylate ion, however this can easily be converted into a carboxylic acid with the addition of a dilute acid

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35
Q

What is the formula for alkaline hydrolysis to a carboxylic acid?

A

Nitrile + H2O + OH- -> Carboxylate ion + NH3

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36
Q

Can carboxylic acids be reduced to aldehydes and why?

A

No carboxylic acids cannot be reduced to aldehydes, because all aldehydes are more easily reduced that carboxylic acids, meaning any aldehyde produced will also immediately be reduced to a primary alcohol

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37
Q

What is produced from the neutralisation of carboxylic acids?

A

Carboxylate salts

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38
Q

What is the most common carboxylate salt?

A

Sodium ethanoate

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39
Q

What is formula for the production of sodium ethanoate from ethanoic acid?

A

CH3COOH + NaOH -> CH3COONa + H2O

Ethanoic acid + sodium hydroxide -> sodium ethanoate + water

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40
Q

What type of compound are carboxylate salts?

A

Ionic

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41
Q

What is the functional group of acyl chlorides?

A

COCl

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42
Q

What occurs in the halogenation of carboxylic acids and what are formed?

A

The OH group is replaced by a halogen (e.g. chlorine) forming an acyl (chloride)

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43
Q

Why must the halogenation of carboxylic acids occur in anhydrous conditions?

A

Because both the reagents and the acyl chloride product react with water

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44
Q

What is the reagent in the halogenation of carboxylic acids to an acyl chloride?

A

Phosphorus pentachloride

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45
Q

How do you name acyl chlorides?

A

You use the suffix -oyl chloride

For example propanoyl chloride

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46
Q

What are enantiomers?

A

Optical isomers that are mirror images of one another, but are non-superimposable.

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47
Q

How do enantiomers affect plane-polarised light?

A

It rotates it

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48
Q

In polarimetry, if the plane of polarised light is rotated clockwise, what is the substance described as?

A

Dextrorotatory

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49
Q

In polarimetry, if the plane of polarised light is rotated anti-clockwise, what is the substance described as?

A

Laevorotary

50
Q

In polarimetry, if the angle of rotation is a negative value what is direction of the rotation?

A

Anti-clockwise

51
Q

In polarimetry, if the angle of rotation is a positive value what is direction of the rotation?

A

Clockwise

52
Q

What is a racemic mixture?

A

A mixture containing equal amounts of two enantiomers

53
Q

Why do racemic mixtures display no optical activity in polarimetry?

A

Because each enantiomer rotates the plane of light to the same degree in opposite directions

54
Q

What is unpolarised light?

A

(Normal) light that has oscillations in all planes

55
Q

What is the optical activity of Sn2 products?

A

The optical activity of the product will be an inversion of the reactant. E.g. if the reactant was laevorotatory, the product would be dextrorotatory

56
Q

What is the optical activity of Sn1 products?

A

The product will display no optical activity

57
Q

Why will the product of Sn1 mechanism display no optical activity?

A

As it will produce a racemic mixture, in which each enantiomer will rotate the plane of light to the same degree in opposite directions, resulting in no net rotation/optical activity

58
Q

Which mechanism (Sn1 or Sn2) is most common for primary halogenoalkanes?

A

Sn2

59
Q

Which mechanism (Sn1 or Sn2) is most common for secondary halogenoalkanes?

A

Neither, both mechanisms can occur, with the conditions and actual halogenoalkane dictating which is more common

60
Q

Which mechanism (Sn1 or Sn2) is most common for tertiary halogenoalkanes?

A

Sn1

61
Q

What is the transition state of the Sn2 mechanism?

A

The original halogenoalkane with an extra OH attached. The carbon will have 5 bonds (the bond to the halide and the OH are partial bonds)

62
Q

What is the product of the first step in the Sn1 mechanism?

A

A carbocation with a planar shape, which can equally be attacked from either the left or the right by the OH- ion, hence forming a racemic mixture

63
Q

What is the common reducing agent for both ketones and aldehydes?

A

Lithium tetrahydridoaluminate (also known as lithium aluminium hydride)

64
Q

What must the lithium tetrahydridoaluminate be dissolved in for the reduction to take place?

A

Dry ether

65
Q

What 4 reagents can be used to oxidise aldehydes but not ketones?

A

Acidified potassium dichromate
Fehling’s solution
Benedict’s solution
Tollen’s reagent

66
Q

What is the positive colour change for oxidisation with acidified potassium dichromate?

A

If an aldehyde is present, it will change from an orange solution to a green solution

67
Q

What is the positive colour change for oxidisation with Fehling’s solution and Benedict’s solution?

A

If an aldehyde is present, it will change from a deep blue solution to a red precipitate

68
Q

What is the positive colour change for oxidisation with Tollen’s reagent?

A

If an aldehyde is present, it will change from a colourless solution to a silver mirror

69
Q

In aldehyde oxidation with acidified potassium dichromate, what causes the colour change?

A

The reduction of chromium from +6 to +3

70
Q

In aldehyde oxidation with Fehling’s solution and Benedict’s solution, what causes the colour change?

A

The conversion of a copper (II) complex to copper (I) oxide

71
Q

In aldehyde oxidation with Tollen’s reagent, what causes the colour change?

A

The conversion of a silver (I) complex to metallic silver

72
Q

What is Tollen’s reagent also known as?

A

Ammoniacal silver nitrate

73
Q

How do you perform the iodoform test/reaction?

A

If a carbonyl compound is added to an alkaline solution of iodine and the mixture is warmed and then cooled, a pale yellow precipitate sometimes forms

74
Q

What is the iodoform reaction a positive test for?

A

Carbonyls with the CH3CO group

75
Q

What aldehydes contain the CH3CO group?

A

Only ethanal

76
Q

What ketones contain the CH3CO group?

A

Methyl ketones (ketones with the carbonyl group as the second carbon in the chain)

77
Q

Why will some alcohols also form a positive test in iodoform reactions?

A

Because oxidising conditions are used, so the alcohols will be oxidised to carbonyls. Therefore to work out whether the alcohol will show a positive test in iodoform, first imagine the alcohol in its carbonyl state

78
Q

What are the reaction conditions for the reaction between carbonyls and hydrogen cyanide?

A

The reagent is hydrogen cyanide, and the reaction is carried out in an aqueous alkaline solution containing potassium cyanide (KCN)

79
Q

What is the type of mechanism for the reaction between carbonyls and hydrogen cyanide?

A

Nucleophilic addition

80
Q

What is the name of the product of the reaction between carbonyls and hydrogen cyanide?

A

Hydroxynitriles

81
Q

What would the name of the organic product from the reaction between propanal and hydrogen cyanide?

A

2-hydroxybutanenitrile

82
Q

In hydroxynitriles, which carbon is often the first carbon in nomenclature?

A

The carbon which is attached to the nitrogen (the carbon in the nitrile group)

83
Q

How do you revise the mechanism for the reaction between carbonyls and hydrogen cyanide?

A

Draw it out each time this flashcard comes up until you get it 100% right by memory
Include all curly arrows, relevant lone pairs and dipoles!

84
Q

Why is a racemic mixture produced from the reaction between carbonyls and hydrogen cyanide?

A

Because the carbonyl molecule is planar, which means there is an equal chance of the cyanide ion attacking from either side of the plane, meaning a racemic mixture is formed

85
Q

Will the produce of the reaction between HCN and carbonyls display optical activity and why?

A

No it will not display optical activity, as it produces a racemic mixture

86
Q

What is Brady’s reagent also known as?

A

2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine

87
Q

What does Brady’s reagent provide a positive test for?

A

The presence of a carbonyl compound

88
Q

What is the positive colour for the presence of a carbonyl compound using Brady’s reagent?

A

Bright orange coloured precipitate

89
Q

What else can Brady’s reagent be used for?

A

To identify exact individual carbonyls

90
Q

How can Brady’s reagent be used to identify exact individual carbonyls?

A

The compound formed from the reaction with Brady’s (the orange precipitate) can be filtered, purified and dried, and their melting points measured. These measured melting points can then be compared to data book melting points to identify the carbonyl present

91
Q

What are the compounds formed from the reaction with Brady’s reagent known as?

A

Derivatives

92
Q

What is the general formula of acyl chlorides?

A

RCOCl

93
Q

What is formed from the reaction between water and acyl chlorides?

A

A carboxylic acid and hydrogen chloride gas is formed

94
Q

What happens in the reaction between acyl chlorides and water?

A

The OH and chlorine swap places

95
Q

What is formed from the reaction between acyl chlorides and alcohols?

A

An ester and hydrogen chloride gas is formed

96
Q

What happens in the reaction between acyl chlorides and alcohols?

A

The hydrogen from the OH joins with the Cl to form HCl, and the rest of the alcohol joins the molecule where the Cl was

97
Q

What is formed from the reaction between acyl chlorides and ammonia?

A

An amide and hydrogen chloride gas are formed.

However the hydrogen chloride goes on to react with unreacted NH3 to form NH4Cl

98
Q

What does the amide group look like?

A

O=C-NH2

99
Q

What is the organic product of the reaction between amines and acyl chlorides?

A

N-substituted amides

100
Q

What does the N indicate in N-substituted amines?

A

That there is an alkyl group also attached to the N. It is essentially used as a locant, for example N-methyl-ethanamide would indicate that there is a methyl group attached to the N

101
Q

Do secondary amines react with acyl chlorides and what is the organic product?

A

Yes, and the N on the organic product will have two attached alkyl groups. This can be named using N again, e.g. N,N-dimethyl-ethanamide would indicate that there was two methyl groups attached to the N

102
Q

Do tertiary amines react with acyl chlorides and why?

A

No they do not, as they have no H atom to react with the Cl to form hydrogen chloride

103
Q

What is the functional group of esters?

A

O=C-O-R
R
or
-COO-

104
Q

What reacts to form esters?

A

Carboxylic acids and alcohols

105
Q

What is the equation for the hydrolysis of esters in acid solution?

A

Ester + Water ⇌ Alcohol + Carboxylic acid

This reaction is reversible

106
Q

What is the catalyst used in the hydrolysis of esters/the formation of esters from alcohols and carboxylic acids?

A

A sulfuric acid catalyst

107
Q

What is the equation for the hydrolysis of esters in alkaline solution?

A

Ester + NaOH -> Carboxylate salt + Na + Alcohol

108
Q

What is the disadvantage of using hydrolysis of esters in alkaline solution?

A

A carboxylate ion is formed, however this can easily be overcome by adding a dilute acid (H+) to form a carboxylic acid

109
Q

What is the advantage of using hydrolysis of esters in alkaline solution?

A

The reaction is not reversible so goes to completion

110
Q

How do you name esters?

A

The first part of it (before the -OO-) is the second word, and the second part of it (after the -OO-) is the first work
For example:
CH3COOCH3
Would be methyl ethanoate

111
Q

Which part of the name of the ester indicates the carboxylic acid and which part the alcohol that came together to form it?

A

The first part is the alcohol, the second part the carboxylic acid.
For example:
Methyl ethanoate would be formed from methanol and ethanoic acid

112
Q

2 uses of esters

A

Pleasant smells given off by esters means they are often used in perfumes
Triesters can be hydrolysed to form a common ingredient of soaps, sodium stearate

113
Q

What are the two main differences between addition and condensation polymerisation?

A

In condensation polymerisation-

  • each time two monomers join together, another small molecule is formed as a by product (often water)
  • usually the monomers reacting together are different
114
Q

To form a polyester, what must the two monomers have?

A

A reactive group at each end of the monomers, often that reactive group is an OH group

115
Q

2 uses of polyesters

A

Food and drink packaging

Many types of clothing

116
Q

What can sodium carbonate and hydrogencarbonate be used to test for and why?

A

Carboxylic acids, as they react with carboxylic acids to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water

117
Q

How can you convert a carbonyl into a hydroxynitrile?

A

Carbonyl + HCN (in the presence of KCN) -> Hydroxynitrile

118
Q

How can you convert a nitrile into a carboxylic acid?

A

Nitrile + heat under reflux with dilute HCl -> Carboxylic acid

119
Q

To form an ester from an alcohol and a carboxylic acid, what must also be present?

A

H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)

120
Q

What observation can you make if an ester has been formed?

A

Fruity smell

A-Level Edexcel Chemistry (24 decks)

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