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PSYC 212 > Chapter 16: The Chemical Senses > Flashcards

Chapter 16: The Chemical Senses Flashcards

1
Q

anosmia

A

the loss of the sense of smell due to injury or infection

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2
Q

negative consequences of anosmia

A
  • Loss of the pleasure of eating
  • Loss of the pleasure of socializing
  • Feelings of isolation
  • Lack of motivation to eat
  • Becoming more prone to hazardous events
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3
Q

taste

A

occurs when molecules enter the mouth in solid or liquid form and stimulate receptors on the tongue

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4
Q

olfaction

A

occurs when airborne molecules enter the nose and stimulate receptor neurons in the olfactory mucosa

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5
Q

flavour

A

the impression we experience from the combination of taste and olfaction

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6
Q

where do the chemical senses occur?

A

right at the beginning of the systems when the receptors are stimulated

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7
Q

neurogenesis

A

the constant renewal of smell and taste receptors

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8
Q

life cycle of olfactory receptors

A

5-7 weeks

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9
Q

life cycle of taste receptors

A

1-2 weeks

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10
Q

why are the chemical senses called gatekeepers?

A
  • they identify things the body needs for survival and that should be consumed
  • they detect things that would be bad for the body and should not be consumed
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11
Q

how are the chemical senses are distinct from other senses

A
  • Sensory receptors are exposed to the environment
  • They have shorter life cycles
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12
Q

5 basic taste sensations

A

salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami

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13
Q

McBurney, 1969 taste quality experiment

A

presented taste solutions to participants and asked them to make magnitude estimates of the intensity of each of the four taste qualities for each solution. Found that some substances have a predominant taste quality while others result in combinations of the basic taste qualities

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14
Q

sweetness is associated with

A

substances that have a nutritional or caloric value

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15
Q

what response is associated with sweetness?

A

acceptance response and triggers anticipatory metabolic responses

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16
Q

bitterness is associated with

A

harmful substances

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17
Q

what response is associated with bitterness?

A

automatic rejection responses to help the organism avoid the substance

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18
Q

saltiness is associated with

A

the presence of sodium

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19
Q

function of saltiness

A

Allows the body to replenish its salt content`

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20
Q

papillae

A

ridges and valleys on the tongue, some of which contain taste buds

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21
Q

4 types of papillae

A

filiform papillae, fungiform papillae, foliate papillae, and circumvallate papillae

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22
Q

Filiform papillae

A

shaped like cones and are found over the entire surface of the tongue, giving it its rough appearance

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23
Q

Fungiform papillae

A

shaped like mushrooms and are found at the tip and sides of the tongue

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24
Q

Foliate papillae

A

series of folds along the back of the tongue on the sides

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25
Q

Circumvallate papillae

A

shaped like flat mounds surrounded by a trench and are found on the back of the tongue

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26
Q

what papillae contain taste buds?

A

All papillae except the filiform papillae

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27
Q

taste buds

A

structures located within the papillae on the tongue that contain the taste cells

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28
Q

how many taste buds does the tongue contain?

A

10,000

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29
Q

how many taste cells does each taste bud contain?

A

50-100

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30
Q

taste cells

A

cells that cause the transduction of chemical to electrical energy when chemicals contact receptor sites or channels located at the tip of this cell

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31
Q

taste pore

A

an opening in the taste bud through which the tips of taste cells protrude. When chemicals enter a taste pore, they stimulate the taste cells and result in transduction

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32
Q

4 ways signals generated in the taste cells are transmitted from the tongue to the brain

A
  • The chorda tympani nerve
  • The glossopharyngeal nerve
  • The vagus nerve
  • The superficial petrosal nerve
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33
Q

The chorda tympani nerve

A

from taste cells on the front and sides of the tongue

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34
Q

The glossopharyngeal nerve

A

from the back of the tongue

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35
Q

The vagus nerve

A

from the mouth and the throat

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36
Q

The superficial petrosal nerve

A

from the soft palate (top of the mouth)

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37
Q

across-fibre patterns

A

another word for population coding

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38
Q

Erickson, 1963 rats and population coding experiment

A

If he shocked rats while they were drinking one of the 3 substances, he found that they would avoid it and choose one of the others in subsequent trials.

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39
Q

Schiffman & Erickson, 1971 humans and population coding experiment

A

in humans, solutions judged as more psychophysically similar had similar patterns of firing

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40
Q

counter-evidence for population coding

A

using different behavioural tests, mice that no longer have a sweet receptor still have a preference for sugar

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41
Q

PTC & genetic cloning in mice

A

mice don’t have PTC receptors, so they don’t find it bitter like humans do. However, using genetic cloning to input a PTC receptor, we can get mice to avoid PTC

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42
Q

Cyx & genetic cloning in mice

A

mice have Cyx receptors and avoid them. However, using genetic cloning, we can remove the receptor so that they no longer avoid it

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43
Q

are neurons in the taste system specialized?

A

Recordings from neurons at the beginning of taste systems are specialized to respond to specific stimuli, but some neurons respond to many different types of stimuli

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44
Q

Amiloride

A

blocks the flow of sodium into taste receptors

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45
Q

what happens when amiloride is applied to rat’s tongues?

A

Applying amiloride to the tongue blocks the flow of sodium to taste receptors and causes a decrease in responding of neurons in the rat’s brainstem that respond to salt

46
Q

what type of coding is used in the taste system?

A

Most researchers favour specificity coding, but the debate isn’t resolved

47
Q

Tasters

A

people who can taste a given substance

48
Q

nontasters

A

people who can’t taste a given substance

49
Q

humans vs. cat’s taste

A

Cats are blind to sweet tastes

50
Q

supertasters

A

people who are especially sensitive to a particular substance

51
Q

PROP & PTC differences in taste

A

PROP & PTC specialized receptors are absent in non-tasters (about 1/3 of people)

52
Q

what is one of the most common individual taste differences?

A

differences in the perception of the sweetness of sucrose

53
Q

Micosmatic

A

having a poor sense of smell that is not crucial to survival

54
Q

Macrosmatic

A

having a well-developed sense of smell

55
Q

humans’ smell is ____

A

Macrosmatic

56
Q

do humans have a sensitive sense of smell?

A

yes; we can discriminate between more than 1 trillion olfactory stimuli

57
Q

detection threshold

A

the lower concentration at which an odorant can be detected

58
Q

forced-choice method

A

participants are presented with one weak odorant and one no odorant and must determine which has the stronger smell. The threshold is determined as the concentration that results in a correct response in 75% of trials

59
Q

are humans good at identifying specific odours?

A

no

60
Q

does knowing the correct label for an odour influence our perception of it?

A

yes

61
Q

B-ionone in sensitive vs. nonsensitive individuals

A
  • Individuals more sensitive to B-ionone describe it as fragrant
  • Individuals less sensitive to B-ionone describe it as sour
62
Q

effect of genetics on smell

A

Some genetic conditions cause the selective loss of some smells

63
Q

perception of androsterone

A

it’s described positively, neutrally, or negatively depending on the person

64
Q

why is odour identification so difficult?

A
  • We lack a specific language for odour quality
  • Molecules that have similar structures can smell very differently, while molecules that have very different structures can smell very similarly
  • Most of the odours we encounter consist of a mixture of many different chemicals
  • Odours rarely occur in isolation
65
Q

odour objects

A

sources of odour

66
Q

two stages of perceiving odour

A
  1. Analyzing the different chemical components of odours and transforming these components into neural activity at specific places in the olfactory bulb
  2. Synthesizing information about the chemical components received from the olfactory bulb into representations of odour objects
67
Q

where does analyzing odour take place?

A

in the olfactory mucosa and the olfactory bulb

68
Q

where does synthesizing odour take place?

A

in the olfactory cortex and beyond

69
Q

Olfactory mucosa

A

a dime-sized region at the top of the nasal cavity that contains receptors for smell

70
Q

Olfactory bulb

A

the structure that receives signals directly from the olfactory receptors.

71
Q

Olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs)

A

sensory neurons located in the olfactory mucosa that contain the olfactory receptors

72
Q

Olfactory receptors

A

a protein string that responds to odour stimuli

73
Q

how many different types of olfactory receptors are there?

A

400

74
Q

how many different olfactory receptors do ORNs contain?

A

1

75
Q

calcium imaging

A

measures the increase in calcium ions inside the olfactory receptor that occurs when it responds by soaking olfactory neurons in a chemical that causes the ORN to fluoresce with a green glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. Increasing Ca+ inside the neuron decreases the glow, providing a measure of how much Ca+ has entered the neuron

76
Q

recognition profile

A

the pattern of activation of individual receptors for a particular odorant

77
Q

how are odorants coded?

A

by a different pattern of firing of ORNs

78
Q

how many odorants does an ORN respond to?

A

many

79
Q

glomeruli

A

small structures in the olfactory bulb that receive signals from similar olfactory receptor neurons. Each glomerulus collects information about a small group of odorants

80
Q

Chemotopic/ odour/odotopic maps

A

the pattern of activation in the olfactory system in which chemicals with different properties create a map of activation based on these properties

81
Q

what kind of properties are chemotopic/ odour/odotopic maps based on

A

chemical properties

82
Q

Piriform cortex (primary olfactory area)

A

an area under the temporal lobe that receives signals from the glomeruli in the olfactory bulb

83
Q

Orbitofrontal cortex (secondary olfactory area)

A

an area in the frontal lobe, near the eyes that receives signals originating in the olfactory receptors

84
Q

amygdala

A

involved in determining emotional reactions to smell, faces, and pain

85
Q

how are odorants organized in the piriform cortex?

A

the chemotopic map vanishes and there is an overlap between the activity caused by different odorants

86
Q

Functional ultrasound imagery

A

determines brain activation by measuring changes in blood flow

87
Q

how does learning affect the formation of the odour?

A

The formation of odour objects involves learning, which links together scattered activations of a particular object

88
Q

when are odour objects formed

A

when experience with an odour causes neurons in the piriform cortex to become activated

89
Q

Wilson, 2003 piriform cortex and odour discrimination experiment

A

measured the response in the rat’s piriform cortex to two odorants (a mixture and a compound). Found that given enough time, neurons in the piriform cortex can learn to discriminate between different odours and that this learning may be involved in our ability to differentiate between odours in the environment

90
Q

Nucleus of the solitary tract

A

where the fibres from the tongue, mouth, and throat connect

91
Q

umami

A

described as meaty, brothy, or savoury, and associated with MSG

92
Q

the tongue map

A

a myth that depicts where in the tongue particular taste qualities are detected

93
Q

3 components of the chemical senses

A

taste, olfaction, and flavour

94
Q

emotional components of the chemical senses

A
  • Things that are bad for us often taste or smell unpleasant
  • Things that are good for us generally taste or smell good
  • Smelling an odour associated with a past place or event can trigger memories, which in turn may create emotional reactions
95
Q

descriptors of taste

A
  • Onset/aftertaste
  • Intensity
  • Quality
  • Hedonics (pleasant vs. unpleasant)
  • Localization
96
Q

4 taste qualities

A
  • Sodium chloride (salty)
  • Hydrochloric acid (sour)
  • Sucrose (sweet)
  • Quinine (bitter)
97
Q

taste qualities of potassium chloride (KCl)

A

has substantial salty and bitter components

98
Q

taste qualities of sodium nitrate (NaNO3)

A

results in a taste consisting of a combination of salty, sour, and bitter

99
Q

is there a connection between the tastes and functions of substances?

A

There is not a perfect connection between the tastes and functions of substances

100
Q

when does gustatory transduction take place?

A

when chemicals contact the receptor sites on the tips

101
Q

where do signals from the gustatory pathways go?

A

These pathways make connections in the nucleus of the solitary tract in the spinal cord. Then they travel to the thalamus, followed by areas in the frontal lobe, including the insula, frontal operculum cortex, and the orbitofrontal cortex

102
Q

population coding

A

Quality is signalled by the pattern of activity distributed across many neurons

103
Q

taste buds & receptors in tasters vs. non-tasters

A

Tasters have more taste buds and specialized receptors

104
Q

supertasters and bitter substances

A

Supertasters appear more sensitive to bitter substances than tasters. As a result, they’ll eat less vegetables. They have a lower body weight. They’re less likely to drink alcohol & smoke

105
Q

yes/no procedure

A

participants are given trials with odours along the blank trails. They respond by saying yes or no

106
Q

disadvantages of the yes/no procedure

A

can result in bias in terms of when the participants decide to respond

107
Q

odour sensitivity of rats vs. dogs. vs. humans

A
  • Rats are 8-50 times more sensitive to odours than humans
  • Dogs are 300-10,000 times more sensitive than humans
108
Q

why are dogs better at smelling than humans?

A

The difference lies in the number of receptors they each have. Humans have ten million and dogs have one billion olfactory receptors

109
Q

the puzzle of olfactory quality

A

Researchers have found it difficult to map perceptual experience onto physical attributes of odorants. There is no specific language for odour quality

110
Q

proteins in olfactory receptors

A

Each receptor has a protein that crosses the membrane 7 times

111
Q

Rennaker study

A

used multiple electrodes to measure neural responding in the piriform cortex and found that isoamyl acetate causes activation across the cortex

PSYC 212 (11 decks)

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