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A&P II > Chapter 16 - Endocrine System > Flashcards

Chapter 16 - Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

Characteristics of exocrine glands

A
  1. Non-hormonal (sweat, saliva)

2. Have ducts to carry secretion to membrane surface

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2
Q

Characteristics of endocrine glands

A
  1. Hormonal

2. No ducts

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3
Q

Name the endocrine glands

A
  1. Pituitary gland
  2. Thyroid gland
  3. Parathyroid gland
  4. Adrenal gland
  5. Pineal gland
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4
Q

The hypothalamus is a ____ organ.

A

Neuroendocrine

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5
Q

Organs that have both endocrine and exocrine functions

A
  1. Pancreas
  2. Gonads
  3. Placenta
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6
Q

Other tissues and organs that produce hormones:

A
  1. Adipose cells
  2. Thymus
  3. Cells in walls of small intestine
  4. Stomach
  5. Kidneys
  6. Heart
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7
Q

Different chemical messengers

A
  1. Hormones
  2. Autocrines
  3. Paracrines
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8
Q

long-distance chemical signals; travel in blood or lymph

A

Hormones

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9
Q

Chemicals that exert effects on same cells that secrete them

A

Autocrines

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10
Q

Locally acting chemicals that affect cells other than those that secrete them

A

Paracrines

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11
Q

Two main classes of hormones

A
  1. Amino acid-based

2. Steroids

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12
Q

Peptides and proteins

A

Amino acid-based hormones

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13
Q

Synthesised from cholesterol; gonadal and adrenocortical hormones

A

Steroids

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14
Q

Hormone action on target cells may be to

A
  1. Alter plasma membrane permeability and/or membrane potential by opening or closing ion channels
  2. Stimulate synthesis of enzymes or other proteins
  3. Activate or deactivate enzymes
  4. Induce secretory activity
  5. Stimulate mitosis
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15
Q

All amino acid-based hormones are ____ except ____.

A

Water-soluble; thyroid hormone

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16
Q

How do water-soluble hormones act on receptors?

A
  1. Act on plasma membrane receptors
  2. Act via G protein second messengers
  3. Can not enter cell
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17
Q

Steroid and thyroid hormones are ___-soluble.

A

Lipid

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18
Q

How do lipid-soluble hormones act on receptors?

A
  1. Act on intracellular receptors that directly activate genes
  2. Can enter cell
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19
Q

What are the signaling mechanisms?

A
  1. cAMP signaling mechanism

2. PIP2-calcium signaling mechanism

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20
Q

Steps of cyclic AMP signaling:

A
  1. Hormone (1st messenger) binds to receptor
  2. Receptor activates G protein
  3. G protein activates adenylate cyclase
  4. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP (2nd messenger)
  5. cAMP activates protein kinases that phosphorylate proteins
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21
Q

Activated kinases:

A

phosphorylate various proteins, activating some and inactivating others

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22
Q

cAMP is rapidly degraded by the enzyme _____.

A

phosphodiesterase

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23
Q

______ have huge amplification effect during cAMP signaling.

A

Intracellular enzymatic cascades

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24
Q

PIP2-calcium signaling mechanism involves ____.

A

phospholipase C

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25
Q

G protein and membrane-bound effector

A

phospholipase C

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26
Q

Phospholipase C splits PIP2 into _____.

A

2 second messengers

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27
Q

What are the two second messengers?

A
  1. diacylglycerol (DAG)

2. inositol triphosphate (IP3)

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28
Q

What is the function of diacylglycerol?

A

activates protein kinase

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29
Q

What is the function of inositol triphosphate?

A

causes Ca2+ release

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30
Q

Calcium ions act as ____.

A

Second messenger

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31
Q

Ca2+ alters ______ or binds to _____.

A

enzyme activity and channels; calmodulin

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32
Q

Regulatory protein

A

Calmodulin

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33
Q

When calcium binds to calmodulin, what happens?

A

The calmodulin activates enzymes that amplify cellular response.

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34
Q

_____ is second messenger for some hormones.

A

Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)

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35
Q

Steroid hormones and thyroid hormone diffuse into ____ and bind with ____.

A

target cells; intracellular receptors

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36
Q

____ enters nucleus; binds to specific region of DNA.

A

Receptor-hormone complex

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37
Q

After the receptor-hormone complex binds to a specific region of DNA:

A

It prompts DNA transcription to produce mRNA

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38
Q

mRNA directs:

A

protein synthesis

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39
Q

mRNA promotes:

A
  1. Metabolic activities
  2. Synthesis of structural proteins
  3. Synthesis of proteins for export from the cell
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40
Q

Target cell activation depends on three factors:

A
  1. Blood levels of hormone
  2. Relative number of receptors on or in target cell
  3. Affinity of binding
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41
Q

target cells form more receptors in response to low hormone levels

A

Up-regulation

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42
Q

target cells lose receptors in response to high hormone levels

A

Down-regulation

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43
Q

Endocrine gland stimulated to synthesise and release hormones in response to:

A
  1. Humoral stimuli
  2. Neural stimuli
  3. Hormonal stimuli
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44
Q

Example of humoral stimuli:

A

Ca2+ levels in the blood

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45
Q

Example of neural stimuli:

A

Sympathetic nervous system fibers stimulate adrenal medulla to secrete catecholamines

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46
Q

Example of hormonal stimuli:

A

Hormones stimulate other endocrine organs to release their hormones. Ex. Hypothalamic –> Anterior Pituitary –> target
Organ feedback loop

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47
Q

Steroid and thyroid hormone in the blood are attached to:

A

plasma proteins

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48
Q

Hormones are removed from the blood by:

A
  1. Degrading enzymes
  2. Kidneys
  3. Liver
  4. Half-life
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49
Q

time required for hormone’s blood level to decrease by half

A

Half-life

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50
Q

Different interactions of hormones at target cells:

A
  1. Permissiveness
  2. Synergism
  3. Antagonism
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51
Q

one hormone can not exert its effects without another hormone being present

A

Permissiveness

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52
Q

More than one hormone produces same effects on target cell which leads to amplification

A

Synergism

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53
Q

One or more hormones opposes action of another hormone

A

Antagonism

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54
Q

Pituitary gland is also called

A

Hypophysis

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55
Q

Anterior pituitary is also called

A

Adenohypophysis

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56
Q

Which pituitary has a neural connection to the hypothalamus?

A

Posterior

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57
Q

The neural connection is called

A

Hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract

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58
Q

Nuclei of hypothalamus synthesise

A
  1. Oxytocin

2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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59
Q

Neurohormones are transported to and stored in

A

posterior pituitary

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60
Q

____ carries releasing and inhibiting hormones to anterior pituitary to regulate hormone secretion.

A

Anterior lobe

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61
Q

Characteristics of oxytocin:

A
  1. Strong stimulant of uterine contraction
  2. Released during childbirth
  3. Hormonal trigger for milk ejection
  4. Acts as neurotransmitter in the brain
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62
Q

Characteristics of ADH (Vasopressin):

A
  1. Inhibits or prevents urine formation
  2. Regulates water balance
  3. Targets kidney tubules which leads to reabsorbing more water
  4. Release also triggered by pain, low blood pressure, and drugs
  5. Inhibited by alcohol, diuretics
  6. High concentrations lead to vasoconstriction
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63
Q

What is diabetes insipidus?

A

ADH deficiency due to hypothalamus or posterior pituitary damage

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64
Q

Characteristics of Syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion ( SIADH)

A
  1. Retention of fluid, headache, disorientation

2. Fluid restriction; blood sodium level monitoring

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65
Q

What are the anterior pituitary hormones?

A
  1. Growth hormone (GH)
  2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
  3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  4. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
  5. Luteinising hormone (LH)
  6. Prolactin (PRL)
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66
Q

All anterior pituitary hormones are ___.

A

proteins

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67
Q

All anterior pituitary hormones except GH activate:

A

cAMP second-messenger systems at their targets

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68
Q

Which anterior pituitary hormones are tropic hormones?

A
  1. TSH
  2. ACTH
  3. FSH
  4. LH
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69
Q

regulate secretory action of other endocrine glands

A

tropic hormones

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70
Q

Characteristics of growth hormone:

A
  1. Direct actions on metabolism
  2. Indirect actions on growth
  3. Mediates growth via IGFs
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71
Q

Growth-Promoting proteins

A

Insulin-like growth factors (IGF)

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72
Q

IGFs stimulate:

A
  1. Uptake of nutrients which leads to DNA and proteins
  2. Formation of collagen and deposition of bone matrix
  3. Bone and skeletal muscle
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73
Q

GH release chiefly regulated by ____.

A

hypothalamic hormones

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74
Q

Stimulates release of growth hormone

A

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

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75
Q

Inhibits release of growth hormone

A

Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) (somatostatin)

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76
Q

hunger hormone

A

Ghrelin

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77
Q

Stimulates release of growth hormone 2

A

Ghrelin

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78
Q

What are the homeostatic imbalances of Growth Hormone?

A
  1. hypersecretion

2. hyposecretion

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79
Q

Hypersecretion in children results in ____.

A

gigantism

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80
Q

Hypersecretion in adults results in ____.

A

acromegaly

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81
Q

Hyposecretion in children results in ____.

A

pituitary dwarfism

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82
Q

Thyroid-stimulating Hormone is also called:

A

thyrotropin

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83
Q

TSH is produced by:

A

thyrotropic cells of anterior pituitary

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84
Q

TSH stimulates:

A

normal development and secretory activity of thyroid

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85
Q

TSH release is triggered by:

A

thyrotropin-releasing hormone from hypothalamus

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86
Q

TSH is inhibited by:

A

rising blood levels of thyroid hormones that act on pituitary and hypothalamus

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87
Q

Adrenocorticotropic hormone is also called:

A

corticotropin

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88
Q

Adrenocorticotropic hormone is secreted by:

A

corticotropic cells of anterior pituitary

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89
Q

Adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulates ______ to release ____.

A

adrenal cortex; corticosteroids

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90
Q

Adrenocorticotropic hormone is involved in regulation of:

A

ACTH release

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91
Q

Adrenocorticotropic hormone regulation of ACTH is triggered by ______ in daily rhythm.

A

corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

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92
Q

How is the release of CRH altered?

A

By internal and external factors such as fever, hypoglycemia, or stressors

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93
Q

The two gonadotropins are:

A
  1. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

2. Luteinising hormone (LH)

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94
Q

Gonadotropins are secreted by:

A

gonadotrophs of anterior pituitary

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95
Q

FSH stimulates:

A

gamete (egg or sperm) production

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96
Q

LH promotes production of ____.

A

gonadal hormones

97
Q

Gonadotropin release is triggered by ____ during and after puberty.

A

gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

98
Q

Gonadotropin release is suppressed by ____.

A

gonadal hormones (feedback)

99
Q

Prolactin is secreted by:

A

prolactin cells of anterior pituitary

100
Q

Prolactin stimulates:

A

milk production

101
Q

Prolactin is regulated by:

A

prolactin-inibiting hormone (PIH) (dopamine)

102
Q

What stimulates prolactin release?

A

suckling

103
Q

Hypersecretion of prolactin causes:

A
  1. inappropriate lactation
  2. lack of menses
  3. infertility in females
  4. impotence in males
104
Q

The Thyroid Gland has two lateral lobes connected by ____.

A

isthmus

105
Q

The Thyroid Gland is composed of follicles that produce:

A

the glycoprotein [thyroglobulin]

106
Q

thyroglobulin and iodine compose:

A

colloid

107
Q

____ fills lumen of follicles

A

colloid

108
Q

precursor of thyroid hormone

A

colloid

109
Q

Parafollicular cells produce the hormone ___.

A

calcitonin

110
Q

Thyroid hormone has two releated compounds:

A
  1. T4 (thyroxine)

2. T3 (triiodothyronine)

111
Q

major metabolic hormone

A

thyroid hormone

112
Q

Thyroid hormone increases:

A

metabolic rate and heat production (calorigenic effect)

113
Q

Thyroid hormone regulates:

A
  1. tissue growth
  2. development of skeletal and nervous systems
  3. reproductive capabilities
114
Q

TH maintains:

A

blood pressure

115
Q

Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone: 1. Thyroid hormone is stored ____ on the thyroid gland.

A

extracellularly

116
Q

Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone: 2. Outside of the cell, ____ is synthesised and discharged into ____.

A

thyroglobulin; follicle lumen

117
Q

Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone: 3. ____ are actively taken into the cell and released into lumen.

A

Iodides (I-)

118
Q

Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone: 4. After release into lumen, iodide is ____ to ___.

A

oxidised; iodine (I2)

119
Q

Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone: 5. Iodine attaches to ____, mediated by ____.

A

tyrosine; peroxidase enzymes

120
Q

Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone: 6. Iodinated tyrosines link together to form ___.

A

T3 and T4

121
Q

Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone: 7. Colloid is endocytosed and combined with ___.

A

lysosome

122
Q

Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone: 8. T3 and T4 are cleaved and:

A

diffuse into the bloodstream

123
Q

T3 and T4 are transported by ______.

A

thyroxine-binding globulins (TBGs)

124
Q

Peripheral tissues convert:

A

T4 to T3

125
Q

Rising TH levels provide _____ on release of ____.

A

negative feedback inhibition; TSH

126
Q

______ can overcome negative feedback during pregnancy or exposure to cold.

A

hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

127
Q

Hyposecretion of TH in adults leads to ____.

A

myxedema

128
Q

Hyposecretion of TH in adults if due to lack of iodine can lead to ___.

A

goiter

129
Q

Hyposecretion of TH in infants leads to ____.

A

cretinism

130
Q

Hypersecretion of TH hormones leads to ___.

A

Graves’ disease

131
Q

Calcitonin is produced by ____.

A

parafollicular cells

132
Q

Calcitonin is an antagonist to ___.

A

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

133
Q

At higher than normal doses, calcitonin inhibits:

A
  1. osteoclast activity

2. release of Ca2+ from bone matrix

134
Q

At higher than normal doses, calcitonin stimulates:

A
  1. Ca2+ uptake

2. Ca2+ incorporation into bone matrix

135
Q

most important hormine in Ca2+ homeostasis

A

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

136
Q

PTH stimulates:

A

osteoclasts to digest bone matrix and release Ca2+ to blood

137
Q

PTH enhances:

A

reabsorption of Ca2+ and secretion of phosphate by kidneys

138
Q

PTH promotes activation of _____.

A

vitamin D (by kidneys)

139
Q

PTH increases absorption of

A

Ca2+ by intestinal mucosa

140
Q

PTH has which type of feedback control?

A

negative; rising Ca2+ in blood inhibits PTH release

141
Q

Homeostatic imbalance of PTH due to tumour.

A

hyperparathyroidism

142
Q

What are the characteristics of hyperparathyroidism?

A
  1. bones soften and deform

2. Elevated Ca2+ depresses the nervous system and contributes to formation of kidney stones

143
Q

Hypoparathyroidism follows:

A

gland trauma or gland removal or dietary magnesium deficiency

144
Q

Hypoparathyroidism results in:

A
  1. tetany
  2. respiratory paralysis
  3. death
145
Q

Adrenal gland is also known as ___.

A

suprarenal

146
Q

nervous tissue; part of sympathetic nervous system

A

adrenal medulla

147
Q

three layers of glandular tissue that synthesise and secrete corticosteroids

A

adrenal cortex

148
Q

What are the three layers of the adrenal cortex?

A
  1. Zona glomerulosa
  2. Zona fasciculata
  3. Zona reticularis
149
Q

Zona glomerulosa produces ____.

A

mineralocorticoids

150
Q

Zona fasciculata produces ____.

A

glucocorticoids

151
Q

Zona reticularis produces ____.

A

gonadocorticoids

152
Q

Mineralocorticoids regulate _____ in ECF.

A

electrolytes (primarily Na+ and K+)

153
Q

____ is the most potent mineralocorticoid.

A

aldosterone

154
Q

Aldosterone stimulates:

A
  1. Na+ reabsorption and water retention by kidneys

2. Elimination of K+

155
Q

Aldosterone release is triggered by:

A
  1. decreasing blood volume and blood pressure

2. rising blood levels of K+

156
Q

Hypersecretion due to adrenal tumours

A

aldosteronism

157
Q

Keep blood glucose levels relatively constant

A

glucocorticoids

158
Q

Glucocorticoids maintain blood pressure by:

A

increasing action in vasoconstrictors

159
Q

The different glucocorticoids are:

A
  1. cortisol
  2. Cortisone
  3. corticosterone
160
Q

What is another name for cortisol?

A

hydrocortisone

161
Q

Cortisol is released in response to:

A
  1. ACTH
  2. Patterns of eating and activity
  3. Stress
162
Q

The prime metabolic effect of cortisol is ____.

A

gluconeogenesis

163
Q

formation of glucose from fats and proteins

A

gluconeogenesis

164
Q

Cortisol saves glucose for:

A

the brain

165
Q

Cortisol promotes rises in:

A
  1. blood glucose
  2. fatty acids
  3. amino acids
166
Q

Cortisol enhances ____.

A

vasoconstriction

167
Q

Hypersecretion of glucocorticoids is:

A

Cushing’s syndrome/disease

168
Q

What happens with hypersecretion of glucocorticoids?

A
  1. depresses cartilage and bone formation
  2. inhibits inflammation
  3. depresses immune system
  4. disrupts cardiovascular, neural, and gastrointestinal function
169
Q

Hyposecretion of glucocorticoids is:

A

Addison’s disease

170
Q

Addison’s disease also involves deficits in ___.

A

mineralocorticoids

171
Q

Characteristics of Addison’s disease:

A
  1. decrease in glucose and Na+ levels
  2. weight loss
  3. severe dehydration
  4. hypotension
172
Q

Hypersecretion of gonadocorticoids causes:

A

Adrenogenital syndrome (masculinisation)

173
Q

Medullary chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla synthesise ____ and ____.

A
  1. epinephrine (80%)

2. norepinephrine (20%)

174
Q

Epinephrine stimulates:

A
  1. metabolic activities
  2. bronchial dilation
  3. blood flow of skeletal muscles and the heart
175
Q

Norepinephrine stimulates:

A
  1. peripheral vasoconstriction

2. blood pressure

176
Q

Hypersecretion of medullary chromaffin cells leads to:

A
  1. hyperglycemia
  2. increased metabolic rate
  3. rapid heartbeat and palpitations
  4. hypertension
  5. intense nervousness
  6. sweating
177
Q

Hyposecretion of medullary chromaffin:

A

not problematic; adrenal catecholamines not essential to life

178
Q

Where is the pineal gland located?

A

hanging from the roof of the third ventricle

179
Q

Pinealocytes secrete:

A

melatonin

180
Q

Melatonin is derived from:

A

serotonin

181
Q

Melatonin may affect:

A
  1. timing of puberty
  2. day/night cycles
  3. Body temperature, sleep, appetite
  4. production of antioxidants and detoxification molecules
182
Q

The exocrine cells found in the pancreas:

A

acinar cells

183
Q

Acinar cells produce:

A

enzyme-rich juice for digestion

184
Q

____ in the pancreas contain endocrine cells.

A

Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)

185
Q

Alpha cells in islets of Langerhans produce ___.

A

glucagon

186
Q

Beta cells in islets of Langerhans produce ____.

A

insulin

187
Q

Glucagon is a ____ hormone.

A

hyperglycemic

188
Q

Insulin is a ____ hormone.

A

hypoglycemic

189
Q

Glucagon’s major target is:

A

the liver

190
Q

Glucagon causes:

A

increased blood glucose levels

191
Q

The effects of glucagon are:

A
  1. glycogenolysis
  2. gluconeogenesis
  3. release of glucose to blood
192
Q

breakdown of glycogen to glucose

A

glycogenolysis

193
Q

synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and noncarbohydrates

A

gluconeogenesis

194
Q

Insulin lowers ____.

A

blood glucose levels

195
Q

Insulin enhances:

A

membrane transport of glucose into fat and muscle cells

196
Q

Insulin inhibits:

A

glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

197
Q

Insulin activates ____ on cells.

A

tyrosine kinase enzyme receptor

198
Q

Insulin activation cascade leads to:

A

increased glucose uptake

199
Q

Insulin activation on cells triggers enzymes to:

A
  1. Catalyse oxidation of glucose for ATP production
  2. Polymerise glucose to form glycogen
  3. Convert glucose to fat
200
Q

Factors that influence insulin release:

A
  1. Elevated blood glucose levels
  2. Rising blood levels of amino acids and fatty acids
  3. Release of acetylcholine by parasympathetic nerve fibres
  4. hormones
  5. somatostatin
201
Q

What are the hormones that influence insulin release?

A
  1. Glucagon
  2. Epinephrine
  3. Growth Hormone
  4. Thyroxine
  5. Glucocorticoids
202
Q

Type 1 diabetes is caused by:

A

hyposecretion of insulin

203
Q

Type 2 diabetes is caused by:

A

hypoactivity of insulin

204
Q

glucose spilled into urine

A

glycosuria

205
Q

fats used for cellular fuel in diabetes mellitus leads to ____.

A

lipidemia

206
Q

If lipidemia is severe, it leads to ____ from fatty acid metabolism, which leads to ___ and ___.

A

ketones (ketone bodies); ketonuria; ketoacidosis

207
Q

Untreated ketoacidosis leads to:

A
  1. hyperpnea
  2. disrupted heart activity and O2 transport
  3. depression of nervous system
  4. coma and death
208
Q

The three signs of Diabetes Mellitus are:

A
  1. Polyuria
  2. Polydipsia
  3. Polyphagia
209
Q

huge urine output

A

polyuria

210
Q

excessive thirst

A

polydipsia

211
Q

excessive hunger and food consumption

A

polyphagia

212
Q

Excessive insulin secretion

A

hyperinsulism

213
Q

Hyperinsulism causes ____.

A

hypoglycemia

214
Q

Hypoglycemia is characterised by:

A
  1. low blood glucose levels

2. Anxiety, disorientation

215
Q

Hyperinsulism is treated by:

A

sugar ingestion

216
Q

Ovaries produce:

A
  1. estrogens

2. progesterone

217
Q

Placenta secretes:

A
  1. estrogens
  2. progesterone
  3. human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
218
Q

Testes produce ____.

A

testosterone

219
Q

Other hormone-producing structures are:

A
  1. adipose tissue
  2. enteroendocrine cells of gastrointestinal tract
  3. heart
  4. kidneys
  5. skeleton
  6. skin
  7. thymus
220
Q

Adipose tissue produces which hormones?

A
  1. Leptin
  2. Resistin
  3. Adiponectin
221
Q

appetite control; stimulates increased energy expenditure

A

leptin

222
Q

insulin antagonist

A

resistin

223
Q

enhances sensitivity to insulin

A

adiponectin

224
Q

What hormones are produced by enteroendocrine cells of the gastrointestinal tract?

A
  1. Gastrin
  2. Secretin
  3. Cholecystokinin
  4. Serotonin
225
Q

stimulates release of HCl

A

gastrin

226
Q

stimulates liver and pancreas

A

secretin

227
Q

stimulates pancreas, gallbladder, and hepatopancreatic sphincter

A

cholecystokinin

228
Q

acts as paracrine

A

serotonin

229
Q

What hormone is released by the heart?

A

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

230
Q

decreases blood Na+ concentration, therefore blood pressure and blood volume

A

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

231
Q

What hormones do the kidneys release?

A
  1. Erythropoietin

2. Renin

232
Q

signals production of red blood cells

A

erythropoietin

233
Q

initiates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism

A

renin

234
Q

What hormone does the osteoblasts in the skeleton release?

A

osteocalcin

235
Q

osteocalcin is activated by ___.

A

insulin

236
Q

What hormone is secreted by the skin?

A

cholecalciferol

237
Q

Cholecalciferol is the precursor for:

A

vitamin D

238
Q

What hormones does the thymus release?

A
  1. Thymulin
  2. Thymopoietins
  3. Thymosins

classified as hormones; act as paracrines

A&P II (8 decks)

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