Chapter 14: Personality - 15 marks Flashcards by Unknown Unknown

Who are you? What makes you You?
Your behaviour is common to others but it is also distinctive!
Personality
Distinctive and relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that characterize a person’s response to situations

What is Personality?

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you are like no one else

Personality-Identity

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t’s inside you, not in the environment

Personality-Internal Causes

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the pattern ‘fits together’, has meaning

Personality-Organized

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Perceived characteristics of behaviours that are seen as reflecting an individual’s personality

Personality

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Psychodynamic theorists look for the causes of behaviour in
A dynamic interplay of inner forces that often conflict with one another

The Psychodynamic Perspective

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Unconscious part of mind
Powerful influence on behaviour
E.g., conversion hysteria
Physical symptoms appear without a physical cause

The Psychodynamic Perspective-Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

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Generated by instinctual drives
Discharged directly or indirectly

Psychodynamic Perspective-Psychic energy

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are aware of

Psychodynamic Perspective-Mental events-Conscious

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unaware but can be recalled

Psychodynamic Perspective-Preconscious

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wishes, impulses, etc. are unaware of

Psychodynamic Perspective-Unconscious

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Exists totally within the unconscious mind
It is the innermost core of the personality
The only structure present at birth,
The source of all psychic energy
No direct contact with reality and functions in a totally irrational manner

Freud: Structure of Personality-The id

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Seeks immediate gratification or release
Regardless of rational considerations and environmental realities
Its dictum: “Want … take!

The Structure of Personality-Pleasure principle

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Functions primarily at a conscious level
Functions to keep impulses of id in control
Delays gratification
Imparts self-control
It operates according to the reality principle
It tests reality to decide when and under what conditions the id can safely discharge its impulses and satisfy its needs

The Structure of Personality-The Ego

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The last personality structure to develop
The moral arm of the personality
Controls impulses of id with external control
According to Freud, the superego developed by the age of four or five
Was the repository for the values and ideals of society

The Structure of Personality-Superego

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Ego cannot always control id = conflict
Anxiety when impulses of id threaten to get out of control

Conflict, Anxiety, Defence

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Weapon of ego
Are distortions of reality
Operate unconsciously
Cause of maladaptive behaviour

Conflict, Anxiety, Defence-Defence mechanisms

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Focuses on specific pleasure-sensitive areas of body
Adult personality is function of progressing through theses stages

Psychosexual Development-Series of stages

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Arrested development where instincts focused on particular area

Psychosexual Development-Fixation

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Results genuine or result of ‘defence mechanism’?

Research on Psychoanalytic Theory-Difficult to test

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Nonconscious processes have been demonstrated

Research on Psychoanalytic Theory-Unconscious processes

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Concept of childhood sexuality rejected
Issue = importance of early experiences & emotional attachment

Research on Psychoanalytic Theory-Psychosexual stages

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Freud failed to recognize social & cultural factors
Overemphasized infantile sexuality
Personality develops throughout life span
Childhood experiences were important but not sole determinants

Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theory-Neoanalysts

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Motivated by social interest
Place social welfare above personal interests

Freud’s Legacy: Neoanalytic and Object Relations Approaches-Neoanalytic Approaches
Adler

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Compensate for real/imagined defects Become more competent

Freud’s Legacy: Neoanalytic and Object Relations Approaches-Striving for superiority

Focus = mental representations people form of themselves Become ‘working models’ to interpret social interactions Can generate self-fulfilling prophecies Affects attachment styles in adult relationships Secure vs. avoidant vs. anxious-ambivalent

Object Relations Approaches-Object relation theorists

Emphasis on role of conscious, creative potential, self-actualization

Humanistic Approach-Reaction to Freud

Maslow & Rogers Innate tendency towards self-actualization

Humanistic Approach-Motivations for Behaviour

The total realization of one’s human potential The individual’s creative potential is inborn and striving

Humanistic Approach-Self-actualization

Considered self-actualization to be the ultimate human need and the highest expression of human nature

Humanistic Approach-Abraham Maslow

Kelly’s primary interest was how people construct reality

Humanistic Approach-George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

Are cognitive categories which sort the people and events in their lives The primary basis for individual differences in personality

Humanistic Approach-Personal constructs

Central concept = self-concept Organized , consistent set of perceptions & beliefs about oneself Once established - tendency to maintain it

Humanistic Approach: Rogers-Carl Rogers Self Theory

Consistency among ‘self-perceptions’

Humanistic Approach: Rogers-Self-consistency

Consistency between self-perceptions & experience

Humanistic Approach: Rogers-Congruence

When experience does not ‘match’ the self-concept Threat - Arises when the experience is inconsistent with self-concept Why do people treat me like that? I am a …..

Humanistic Approach: Rogers

Not all people find me a good …

Humanistic Approach: Rogers-Healthy individuals modify self-concept

They are just not clever enough to see that I am a good …

Humanistic Approach: Rogers-Or can distort reality

Degree of congruence between self-concept & experience

Psychological Adjustment-Level of adjustment

Deny or distort reality to be consistent with self-concept

Psychological Adjustment-Maladjustment

Experiences are easily incorporated into self-concept

Psychological Adjustment-Healthy adjustment

How positively or negatively we feel about ourselves

Humanistic Approach-Self-esteem

Fewer interpersonal problems More capable of forming loving relationships Achieve at higher level

Humanistic Approach-High Self-esteem

Anxiety, depression, poor social relationships, underachievement

Humanistic Approach-Poor Self-esteem

More problematic than low self-esteem May react aggressively when self-esteem threatened

Humanistic Approach-Self-esteem Unstable / unrealistically high self-esteem

Enhanced self-esteem vs. mastery of the goal Failure is problematic if goal is enhanced self-esteem

Humanistic Approach-Pursuit of self-esteem

Unconditional acceptance and love Clear guidelines for behaviour Reinforcement of compliance Freedom to make decisions and express opinions within guidelines

Humanistic Approach-Self-esteem Fostering self-esteem

Innate need for acceptance, sympathy, love

Humanistic Approach: Rogers-Need for Positive Regard

Independent of behaviour

Humanistic Approach: Rogers-Unconditional Positive Regard

Dependent upon behaviour Creates ‘conditions of worth

Humanistic Approach: Rogers-Conditional Positive Regard

Experience of being understood & valued gives us freedom to grow

Humanistic Approach: Rogers-Positive self-regard

Creates ‘conditions of worth’

Humanistic Approach: Rogers-Lack of unconditional positive regard

Self-determined, sense of inner freedom, accept inner & outer experiences as they are

Humanistic Approach: Rogers-Fully functioning persons

Self-Verification and Self-Enhancement Motives

Humanistic Approach

Motivated to confirm self-concept Better recall for more consistent self-descriptions Seek out self-confirming relationships

Humanistic Approach-Self-verification

Strong tendency to gain & preserve positive self-image Contributes to psychological well-being

Humanistic Approach-Self-enhancement

Independence & personal achievement

Culture, Gender, and the Self-Individualistic

Achievement of group goals

Culture, Gender, and the Self-Collectivist

Reflected in self-concept descriptions

Culture, Gender, and the Self

Typical’ man or woman

Culture, Gender, and the Self-Gender schemas

Achievement, strength, self-sufficiency Individualistic

Culture, Gender, and the Self-Males

Helpfulness, kindness, self competencies Collectivist

Culture, Gender, and the Self-Females

Too much reliance on self-reports Not scientific? How define self-actualization tendency?

Evaluating Humanistic Theories-Evaluation

Characteristics of therapist Discrepancies between perceived self & ideal self

Evaluating Humanistic Theories-Contribution to psychotherapy approaches

Find correlations among behaviours Reflect basic dimension or trait Each dimension reflects a ‘continuum’ of behaviour

Trait And Biological Perspectives-Factor analysis

Identified 16 basic factors Developed 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire

Cattell’s Sixteen Personality Factors-

In Eysenck original theory Only 2 dimensions needed Introversion-Extraversion Stability-Instability

Eysenck’s Extraversion-Stability Model

Various combinations of two major dimensions of personality Introversion-Extraversion and Stability-Instability, combine to form the more specific traits shown in

Eysenck’s Extraversion-Stability Model

Other trait theorists argued that Cattell’s 16 dimensions may be more than are needed and Eysenck’s two or three may be too few

The Five Factor Model

Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Variations on factors create diversity in personalities

The Five Factor Model-Universally found

Good at predicting behaviour across broad range

Trait & Behaviour Prediction-5 Factor Model & Eysenck’s 2 factor Model

Predict behaviour more specifically

Trait & Behaviour Prediction-Cattel’s 16 Factors

Nature & nurture influence development Focus on role of: Nervous system Genetics Evolution

Biological Foundations of Personality Traits-Biological Foundations of Personality

Brains of extreme introverts = over-aroused Minimize stimulation Brains of extreme extroverts = under-aroused Seek to maximize stimulation

Evidence for Biological Perspective-Extraversion - introversion

Differences in autonomic nervous system arousal

Evidence for Biological Perspective-Stability - instability

Related to levels of dopamine

Evidence for Biological Perspective-Novelty seeking

Show stability & change

The Stability of Personality Traits-Traits & Behaviour

Some, e.g., Introversion-extroversion, emotionality, activity level tend to remain stable over time

The Stability of Personality Traits-Traits

E.g., optimism-pessimism

Stability of Personality Traits-Certain thought patterns remain stable

Shows little stability across situations

Stability of Personality Traits-Behaviour

Difficult because of 3 factors: Traits interact with other traits ‘Importance’ of trait influences consistency Variation in ‘self-monitoring’

Stability of Personality Traits-Predicting behaviour from personality traits?

High = attentive to situational cues Low = attentive to internal beliefs Extreme = very differently in different situations

Stability of Personality Traits-Self-monitors

Focused attention on value of identifying & measuring personality dispositions

Evaluating Trait Approach-Pros

Describes’ structure of personality & individual differences Cannot explain underlying psychological mechanisms

Evaluating Trait Approach-Cons

Behaviour not explained by ‘external’ or ‘internal’ factors alone

Social Cognitive Theories-Albert Bandura

Individual & behaviour & environment are linked Influential pattern of 2-way causal links

Social Cognitive Theories-Reciprocal Determinism

Behaviour governed by 2 factors (Rotter)

Julian Rotter: Expectancy, Reinforcement Value, & Locus of Control-Expectancy & Reinforcement

Likelihood of consequences given behaviour

Julian Rotter: Expectancy, Reinforcement Value, & Locus of Control-Expectancy

How much we desire or dread consequences

Julian Rotter: Expectancy, Reinforcement Value, & Locus of Control-Reinforcement

Generalized expectancy Applies to many aspects of world view

Social Cognitive Theories-Locus of Control

Events under personal control

Locus of Control-Internal

Luck, chance, powerful others

Locus of Control-External

Research shows that people with An internal locus of control Are more likely to take an active role in social change

Locus of Control

Self-determined Seek out information; becoming involved Sense of personal effectiveness

Social Cognitive Theories-Internal locus

Less resistant to social pressures Give into ‘powerful’ others

Social Cognitive Theories-External locus

Albert Bandura Canadian Social learning & Self-Efficacy Beliefs about ability to perform task Self-efficacy

Albert Bandura: The Social Cognitive Perspective and Self-Efficacy-

Specific & measurable goals Performance not outcome goals Difficult but realistic goals Positive not negative goals Short-range & long-range goals Definite time spans for achievement

Self-Efficacy & Goal Setting-Want to know what to do? Then set:

Level of consistency in behaviour is low

Walter Mischel: The Consistency Paradox and If … Then … Behaviour Consistencies-Consistency Paradox

Interplay between personality characteristics and situation If … then ... behaviour consistencies

Walter Mischel: The Consistency Paradox and If … Then … Behaviour Consistencies-Cognitive Affective Personality System (CAPS)

Advanced understanding of internal & external factors Puts insights from other perspectives into cognitive-behavioural concepts Explains inconsistency of behaviour as a stable structure which reacts differently to particular situations

Evaluating Social Cognitive Theories

How do we measure ‘personality’? Ask them? Others? Test results? Observe?

Personality Assessment

Structured set of standardized questions Note other behaviours - appearance, speech patterns etc.

Personality Assessment-Interviews

Characteristics of interviewer can affect answers Dependence on co-operation, honesty of interviewee

Personality Assessment-Drawbacks

Need explicit coding system Aim is not solely to ‘describe’ behaviour Specific behaviour, frequency, specific situations, under what conditions

Personality Assessment-Behavioural Assessment

High level of agreement among observers

Personality Assessment-Interjudge reliability

Sample behaviour at random times over period of days, weeks etc. Allows for data collection of behaviour that may otherwise not be revealed

Personality Assessment-Remote behavioural sampling

Objective measures Use standard questions & agreed upon scoring key

Personality Assessment-Personality Scales

Collect large amount of data

Personality Scales-Advantage

Validity of answers (truthfully answered?) Validity scales Used to detect a ‘pattern’ in responses

Personality Scales-Disadvantage

Based on conception of trait Item seems ‘relevant’ to the trait NEO-PI (Costa & McCrae) Big 5 personality traits

Personality Assessment-Personality scales items: 2 ways to develop Rational

Answered by differing groups Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory revised = MMPI-2

Personality Assessment-Empirical

10 clinical scales 3 validity scales

Personality Assessment-MMPI-2

Measure personality deviations Aspects of personality in people who do not display disorders Screening device in industrial, military settings

Personality Assessment-Configuration pattern of scales

Convicted mass murderer Reflects his severe psychological disturbance Is consistent with his pattern of unrestrained and vicious victimization of others

MMPI Profile-Jeffrey Dahmer’s MMPI profile

Presented with ambiguous stimulus Interpretation = ‘projection’ of inner needs, feelings, ways of viewing the world

Personality Assessment-Projective tests

Rorshach Inkblots Thematic Apperception Test

Personality Assessment-2 main tests

10 inkblots Categorized according to ‘types’ of objects seen Different examiners - different interpretations?

Personality Assessment-Rorschach Inkblots

Ambiguous illustrations/ photos Asked to ‘tell a story’ ‘themes’ are analyzed

Personality Assessment-Thematic Apperception Test

Provides framework

Personality Theory and Personality Assessment-Theory

Provides ‘tools’

Personality Theory and Personality Assessment-Assessment

Who uses what tools? Psychodynamic = projective techniques Humanistic = self-report measures Social-cognitive = behavioural assessments Biological = physiological measurements Trait theorists = inventories (MMPI, NEO-PI)

Theory & Assessment