Chapter 13 midterm 2 Flashcards
what are confederates?
individual(s) working with the experiment, unbeknownst to participants.
what is conformity?
the extent to which persons modify their behaviour to be consistent with the behavior of the surrounding group.
what is social psychology%
Our social environment
influences our daily
lives and affects how
we think, feel, and act.
what is attribution theory?
a framework used to explain the actions of others as the results of either dispositional or situational causes.
When making attributions that explain another person’s behavior, the accuracy of our assessment varies. Although we would like to believe that we operate without bias, there are several factors that may make us more prone to error.
When making sense of
other’s behavior we can
attribute their behavior to
either
Internal: Dispositional, trait-
based causes
•External: Environmental/
situational causes
what is dispositional/internal causes?
when another’s behavior is assumed to be a results of their personality traits and characteristics
what is situational/external causes?
when another’s behaviour is assumed to be a result of environmental causes that are beyond one’s control.
We are more likely to attribute the behavior of others to internal or external causes? example
internal causes
if a date is late, you don’t have all the situational and environmental information, so you are more prone to making dispositional attributions: perhaps they don’t care, they don’t want to go out with you, or other things are more important to them
when assessing our own behavior, we are more likely to make external or internal attributions? example
external attributions
For example, if you arrive late to a movie, you have a wealth of information as to why you were late and can often identify specific external causes: you couldn’t find your keys, you got lost, or you ran into traffic.
Kelley’s Covariation Model of Attributions based on 3 factors:
- Consistency
- Distinctiveness
- Consensus
what is consistency?
behavior looks at how a person acts in the same situation/context across time.
what is distinctiveness?
person’s actions must also be considered, which determines whether the person behaves similarly across different situations/contexts.
what is consensus?
compares the extent to which an individual’s behavior resembles the behavior of others
what types of consistency, distinctiveness, consensus for internal atributions?
high consistency, low distinctiveness, and low consensus
what types of consistency, distinctiveness, consensus for external attributions?
high consistency, high distinctiveness, and high consensus
Student X is taking a class that is highly interactive and writing intensive; all students are required to arrive promptly, and attendance is mandatory. However, Student X consistently arrives late to class and does not comply with the expected norms.Based on the information provided, which of the following best represents the desired normative behavior?
a Coming to class on time
b
Taking mid-day classes
c
Unrealistic expectations of the professor
d
Small classes are more challenging
a. coming to class on time
Explanation Coming to class on time is an example of a social norm -- something that is normal because it is a socially agreed upon practice.
During the first couple weeks of class, a pattern emerged where student X arrived late and disrupted class. Initially, student X arrived 5 minutes late, which quickly progressed to 10 minutes late. By the second week of class, student X was 20 minutes late.
What aspect of Kelley’s covariation theory considers the repeated late arrival of student X?
a
Consensus
b
Consistency
c
Distinctiveness
d
Divergence
b
Consistency
Explanation
In Kelley’s model, consistency is the measure of how frequently a behavior occurs in a certain context (e.g., does it happen “all the time”, “some of the time”, “rarely” or “not at all”?). Consistent behaviors are more likely to be the result of internal factors.
What aspect of Kelley’s covariation theory compares the late arrival of Student X to the on-time arrival of other students?
a
Consensus
b
Consistency
c
Distinctiveness
d
Divergence
a. consensus
Explanation
Consensus describes the level of agreement that a behavior is typical (i.e., “everyone would act this way in the same situation”). If a behavior has high consensus (that is, everyone agrees they would do the same), external attributions are more likely.
Student X blamed her lateness on parking problems, which assumes a(n) ______________ attribution.
a
internal
b
external
c
situational
d
dispositional
b. external
c. situational
Explanation
Internal and dispositional attributions mean the same thing – that some trait the person has is responsible for their behavior (e.g., that the person is bad at time management). That is not the case in this situation. By blaming the parking situation, the student is saying that external (or “situational”) factors explain why she is late. She is arguing that it isn’t her fault – the situation itself caused her to be late.
Wondering whether Student X has frontal-lobe damage or a psychological disorder assumes a(n) ______________ attribution is being made.
a
internal
b
external
c
situational
d
dispositional
a. internal
d. dispositional
Explanation
Internal and dispositional attributions mean the same thing – that some trait the person has is responsible for their behavior (e.g., that Student X has damage to their frontal lobe). The professor in this example is wondering if an internal attribution is appropriate.
What component of Kelley’s covariation model considers the similarity of Student X’s behavior in other courses?
a
Consensus
b
Consistency
c
Distinctiveness
d
Divergence
c
Distinctiveness
Explanation Distinctiveness considers the uniqueness of Student X's behavior (i.e., is it truly "unlike me", or is it really "like me"). In the example above, Student X is saying that her behavior in the class is high in distinctiveness -- that it's "unlike me". Upon consultation with the student's other instructors however, the professor learns that the the behavior is truly low in distinctiveness -- that these actions are "like me". If a behavior is high in distinctiveness, we tend to make external attributions (it's "unlike me" -- the situation made me act like this), while if a behavior is low in distinctiveness, we tend to make internal attributions (it's "like me" -- something about me caused this behavior).
Based on the totality of the situation, what type of attribution can be made about Student X?
a
External
b
Internal
b
Internal
Explanation
Based on the information that the student sends emails to all of her professors to excuse her lateness, an internal attribution seems appropriate – something internal to Student X (e.g., poor time management skills) tends to make her late, rather than something external to Student X (e.g., a family emergency).
Which of the following would represent a dispositional attribution? Select all that apply.
a
Jesse is lazy.
b
Joanna is intelligent.
c
Jasmine was stuck in traffic.
d
Jordan’s mom is ill.
a
Jesse is lazy.
b
Joanna is intelligent.
Explanation
“Jesse is lazy,” and “Joanna is intelligent,” are both dispositional (internal) attributions because they appeal to an internal characteristic or disposition to explain a behavior.
what is the fundamental attribution error?
the tendency to attribute the behaviour of other to internal/dispositional causes rather than to external/environemental causes
another error apart fundamental attribution error is … and explain it
actor-observer bias
on attributes the causes of one’s own behaviour to external causes and the behaviour of others to internal, dispositional causes
When assessing the behavior of others, we are not privy to their prior experiences or other situational factors that are at play, so we are more likely to minimize the influence of the environment and believe that the individual’s actions are a product of their personality and disposition. Due to the limited information, we assume that a person is behaving in a certain way because that is who they are.
what is a self-serving bias?
occurs when individuals credit their successes to internal/dispositional causes and their failures to external/situational causes. By perceiving your successes to be internally derived and your failures to be the result of external causes, your self-esteem is preserved
In addition to the FAE and self-serving bias, erroneous attributions also occur because of the
false consensus effect
what is the false consensus effect?
which occurs when we overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs (Ross, 1977). People assume that the ideas and opinions they embrace are not only correct and sound, but also shared by others around them.
Which of the following best represents the fundamental attribution error?
a
The reason why Keith feels depressed is a function of both nature and nurture.
b
Keanu failed the exam because he is lazy.
c
Rhonda was late because there was traffic.
d Ross got an A on the exam because the class was so easy.
b
Keanu failed the exam because he is lazy.
Explanation
“Keanu failed the exam because he is lazy,” is the best example of the fundamental attribution error because it appeals to an internal source for his behavior (failing the exam) rather than an external source (he had to work an extra shift and couldn’t study). The fundamental attribution error occurs when we jump to making internal attributions about other people’s behavior without considering possible external sources.
Which of the following helps preserve self-esteem?
a
Fundamental attribution error
b
Primacy effects in impression formation
c
False consensus effect
d
Self-serving bias
d
Self-serving bias
Explanation
The self-serving bias describes how we tend to divert blame for a bad outcome (e.g., failing an exam) from our own traits (e.g., poor time management) onto an external factor (e.g., a “tough” professor), and also how we tend to take credit for good outcomes (e.g., getting an “A” on an exam) by attributing our own abilities (e.g., being smart) and minimize external factors (e.g., a very helpful professor). Both of these features boost self-esteem.
what is the impression formation?
addresses how we formulate opinions about individuals or groups. Impression formation is heavily influenced by information that is initially available.
The most important part of how you perceive others and others perceive you is referred to as a
first impression
first impression is based on the
primacy effect
what is the primacy effect?
Basically, the primacy effect means that once an initial impression is formed, decreasing amounts of attention are given to subsequent information
what is typically given more weight than positive information when formulating impressions , negative or positive information?
negative information
this is particularly evident when negative information is received first, which capitalizes on the primacy effect.
what is confirmation bias?
The enduring nature of first impressions means that, if you like or dislike someone, you will invariably process information that is consistent with that impression, known as confirmation bias. Confirmation bias occurs when we are more likely to attend to and process facts or events that are consistent with our initial impression. Conversely, information that contradicts our beliefs is either discarded or ignored—we do not attend to disconfirming evidence.
In Western cultures, primacy effects more strongly impact
impression formation
When you meet someone for the first time, how quickly do you form an impression of that person?
a
Within seconds to minutes of meeting
b
After about 10 minutes
c
You formulate your impression based on the totality of your interaction.
d
You reserve judgment until you meet them in another context.
a
Within seconds to minutes of meeting
Explanation
First impressions develop within the first few seconds to minutes of meeting a person as we integrate available information about that person (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity, appearance, mannerisms, and speech) into a cohesive whole.
If your professor perceives you as a mature and responsible student, what would they most likely think if you came to class late?
a
The professor thinks that you are taking advantage of her good nature.
b
The professor attributes your lateness to lack of concern about your education.
c
The professor thinks that there must be some extenuating circumstances that caused your late arrival.
d
The professor changes her impression of you to being irresponsible.
c
The professor thinks that there must be some extenuating circumstances that caused your late arrival.
Explanation
We tend to try to understand a person’s behaviors in terms of our overall impression of them. In this case, that means explaining an otherwise mature and reliable student’s behavior in terms that make sense – reliable students don’t show up late, so there must be an external factor in play.
what is self-fulfiling prophecy?
when expected outcomes regarding the actions of others are more likely to occur because individuals unqittingly act in ways to bring about the behavior
You go to a party with friends and you feel confident, knowing you are looking good in the new clothes you bought. According to the self-fulfilling prophecy, which of the following would be most likely to occur?
a
You talk to new people, socialize, and enjoy the party.
b
You find everyone to be annoying and wish you had never agreed to come.
c
You meet some new people and find a seat and just watch others.
d
You drink too much and get sick.
a. You talk to new people, socialize, and enjoy the party.
Feeling confident will change the way you act at the party, likely making you more outgoing and sociable. Others will react to you positively based on your confidence and being sociable, resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Which of the following best explains Jennifer’s belief that everyone thinks the exam is hard?
a
Self-serving bias
b
Primacy effects
c
Fundamental attribution error
d
False consensus effect
d
False consensus effect
Explanation
Jennifer’s belief that everyone thinks the exam is too hard based on only her own experience – she thinks her own experience is similar to that of everyone else in the class. This is false however, an example of the false consensus effect.
Which of the following best explains why Jennifer is blaming the professor for her poor performance on the exam?
a
Self-serving bias
b
Primacy effects
c
Fundamental attribution error
d
False consensus effect
a
Self-serving bias
Explanation
Jennifer is making an external attribution to explain her poor performance on the exam: She is claiming that the test was too hard. Of the options presented, the most likely reason she would make this sort of attribution is to protect her self-esteem: If the test is too hard, then she is not to blame for her own poor performance. This is an example of the self-serving bias in action.
Which of the following best explains why the professor concludes that Jennifer lacks the skills needed for success and lacks motivation?
a
Self-serving bias
b
Primacy effects
c
Fundamental attribution error
d
False consensus effect
c
Fundamental attribution error
Explanation
The professor is making an internal attribution to explain Jennifer’s poor performance on the exam: She believes that Jennifer is unmotivated and lacks the skills to succeed. Of the options presented, the most likely reason the professor would make this sort of attribution is a failure to consider other circumstances in Jennifer’s life that might have caused her poor performance (e.g., being sick and unable to study). This is an example of the fundamental attribution error in action
Once we form an opinion about someone, which of the following explains why we attend to information that is consistent with our impressions and ignore information that is not consistent with our beliefs?
a
Self-fulfilling prophecy
b
Negative primacy effect
c
Fundamental attribution error
d
Confirmation bias
d
Confirmation bias
Explanation
Confirmation bias is a problem with the way we go about gathering evidence. We tend to look for evidence for beliefs we already have: If we believe a person is a good person, we tend to interpret their actions in a more positive light, for example.
People from Japan are more likely to demonstrate primacy effects in impression formation than people from the U.S.
true or false
false
Explanation
False – Japanese individuals are less likely to demonstrate primacy effects in impression formation compared to individuals from the United States.
Based on the descriptions provided, which person is more likely to be perceived positively?
a
Scott A. is a lazy, boring, and unreliable person, who is also kind, compassionate, and intelligent.
b
Scott B. is an intelligent, kind, and compassionate person; he can sometimes be boring, lazy and unreliable.
b
Scott B. is an intelligent, kind, and compassionate person; he can sometimes be boring, lazy and unreliable.
Explanation
Due to the primacy effect, Scott B. is more likely to be perceived positively (because his positive traits are listed first).
With regard to impression formation, even if your initial impression is negative, it can be easily changed if subsequent exposures are positive.
true or false
false
Explanation
False – Confirmation bias and the primacy effect work against us. If an initial impression is negative, it will be remembered well due to the primacy effect, and confirmation bias will guide us to seek out further evidence in favor of our negative impression.
When faced with uncertainty regarding social norms and expected behavior, we look to others to determine
the appropriate response
what is social influence?
a process by which our thoughts and actions are strongly influenced by the presence of others.
In ambiguous situations, people are more likely to behave
in ways that are consistent with those around them.
social norms are what?
prescribed behaviors that vary across contexts, cultures, and time.
As the situation changes, so does the expected response
In Western cultures, customs are
individualistic, so the focus is on individual gains over the betterment of the group.
In contrast, Eastern cultures are
collectivistic societies
what are collectivistic societies?
where the benefit of the group supersedes that of the individual. Asian cultures, such as Japan and China, are collectivistic societies, which must be considered when interpreting research and generalizing findings.
true or false?
Social norms also change over time and across generations
true
Variations in norms have been greatly influenced by changing
technology
what are social scripts?
learned behaviors that are expected across a variety of situations
Which of the following are examples of social norms? Select all that apply.
a
Students stop talking when their professor starts lecturing.
b
Richard cuts in front of others in line whenever he is in a hurry.
c
Students raise their hands to ask the instructor for permission to speak in class
d Despite class policy that expressly prohibits the use of cell phones‚ Amy texts her friends during class.
a
Students stop talking when their professor starts lecturing.
c
Students raise their hands to ask the instructor for permission to speak in class
Explanation
“Students stop talking when their professor starts lecturing,” and “Students raise their hands to ask the instructor for permission to speak in class,” are social norms. That is, they are in agreement with commonly agreed-upon “rules” for how to behave in the situations described. The other two options go against social norms.
solomon did research in what?
was interested in empirically testing how the presence of others directly affects conformity
what is conformity?
Conformity is the extent to which individuals modify their behavior to be consistent with the behavior of others in the group
ehat can affect the conformity?
the size of the groupe
Conformity increased when the number of confederates increased from one to three; however, once there were three confederates, the level of conformity did not change.
Conformity levels continue to be higher when
the group size and ambiguity of the task increase
Further replications of Asch’s research have revealed individual differences in conformity based on
personal characteristics, depends on the participants’ self reported levels of distress
locus of control affect conformity
Asch and other researchers found women to have
o have higher rates of agreement to incorrect responses than men
those with an external LOC are more likely to
to conform than those with an internal LOC
There are differences between Eastern and Western cultures, where those in collectivistic cultures are significantly
more likely to conform to the group than those in individualistic cultures.
what s groupthink?
Faulty decision making that occurs when high degree of conformity and group cohesion are higly valued, to the exclusion of opposing infomration and ideas.
According to Janis’s original theory of groupthink, there are three basic components that contribute to poor decision making
overestimating the group (an illusion of invulnerability and a belief in the inherent morality of the group),
closed-mindedness (collective rationalization and stereotyped views of an out-group),
and pressure for uniformity (direct pressure on dissenters, self-censorship, illusions of unanimity, and self-appointed mindguards).
what is an out-group?
the group that a person does not belong to. Members of the out-group are assumed to be highly homogenous.
what is Illusion of invulnerability
Excess optimism that increases risk-taking
Nothing could possibly go wrong
Collective rationalization is when
Minimize and/or disregard the warning of others
They don’t know what they are talking about – don’t waste your time
what is Belief in inherent morality
Belief that the group is looking out for the greater good
We are making the world a better place and know what we are doing
what is Stereotyped views
Hold negative views of out-groups and have high in-group favoritism
(They are not good people and we are better than them)
what is Direct pressure on dissenters
Group members are pressured to conform and not express diverging ideas/opinions (We all agree and no one cares what you think, so keep quiet)
Self-censorship is
The illusion of a united front makes members think that their ideas are incorrect/wrong.
(Everyone agrees, so there is no point in sharing my ideas – I am probably wrong anyway)
Illusion of unanimity is
The group appears unanimous because dissenting views are not considered. (Everyone agrees so there is nothing to discuss)
Self-appointed ‘mindguards’
Some group members want to protect the leader and the group by enforcing group cohesiveness and quashing dissenting ideas.
(The group agrees and no one want to hear your nonsense, so stay quiet)
Which person described below is most likely to conform his/her responses to match others?
a
Bob tends to be opinionated and likes to dominate conversations.
b
Seth is a student who doesn’t have many friends and is self-conscious.
c
Susan is a single mother who lobbies for women’s rights.
d
Francis is a psychology student who just read the social psychology chapter.
b
Seth is a student who doesn’t have many friends and is self-conscious.
Explanation
Conformity is most common when we wish to be liked or “fit in” with the group. Therefore Seth is the most likely to conform, as he is described as lacking many friends and being self-conscious.
According to the Asch’s research findings, ______________ percent of participants complied with an incorrect answer at least once.
75 %
Explanation
A whopping 75% of participants conformed at least once!
A person from which of the following countries would be most likely to conform to the incorrect responses of others?
a
The United States
b
Canada
c
Mexico
d
China
d. China
Explanation
China has a culture that is the most collectivistic/least individualistic; people from highly collectivistic cultures are more likely to conform in the face of social pressure, even if the conforming action is incorrect.
In a situation where groupthink is occurring, which of the following statements best represents the illusion of invulnerability?
a
If first you don’t succeed, then try again.
b
No one cares what we do.
c
Let’s do it—we never fail.
d
Everyone agrees, so stop wasting time.
c
Let’s do it—we never fail.
Explanation
An “illusion of invulnerability” relates to a false perception that a group is incapable of making mistakes or failure – they are too “caught up” in believing in their own hype to think failure is possible.
what is the Nuremberg code?
was a set of ethical guidelines that were put forth after the gruesome revelations of the mass genocide of millions of people and the horrific experiments done on unwilling men, women, and children.
The events in Nazi Germany are difficult to fully comprehend. But it is a devastating example of the fact that people may act in unimaginable, horrific ways under the pressure of
authority
what is obedience to authority?
when people perceived authority figures are capable of getting high levels of cooperation in tasks designed to directly harm others or cause severe pain in another without the use of coercion.
how many continued the shock until the end? at what volts?
65 % at 450 volts
Milgram developed a hierarchy of four standardized verbal prompts for the researcher to keep teachers on task
prompt 1: Please continue, or Please go on
Prompt 2: the experiment requires that you continue
Prompt 3: it is absolutely essential that you continue
Prompt 4: You have no other choice, you must go on.
note that all verbal prompts were benign in nature and there was no outward or implied use of force to continue participation
the effect of distance on obedience?
as the distance decreased, so did obedience.
