Chapter 13 midterm 2 Flashcards
what are confederates?
individual(s) working with the experiment, unbeknownst to participants.
what is conformity?
the extent to which persons modify their behaviour to be consistent with the behavior of the surrounding group.
what is social psychology%
Our social environment
influences our daily
lives and affects how
we think, feel, and act.
what is attribution theory?
a framework used to explain the actions of others as the results of either dispositional or situational causes.
When making attributions that explain another person’s behavior, the accuracy of our assessment varies. Although we would like to believe that we operate without bias, there are several factors that may make us more prone to error.
When making sense of
other’s behavior we can
attribute their behavior to
either
Internal: Dispositional, trait-
based causes
•External: Environmental/
situational causes
what is dispositional/internal causes?
when another’s behavior is assumed to be a results of their personality traits and characteristics
what is situational/external causes?
when another’s behaviour is assumed to be a result of environmental causes that are beyond one’s control.
We are more likely to attribute the behavior of others to internal or external causes? example
internal causes
if a date is late, you don’t have all the situational and environmental information, so you are more prone to making dispositional attributions: perhaps they don’t care, they don’t want to go out with you, or other things are more important to them
when assessing our own behavior, we are more likely to make external or internal attributions? example
external attributions
For example, if you arrive late to a movie, you have a wealth of information as to why you were late and can often identify specific external causes: you couldn’t find your keys, you got lost, or you ran into traffic.
Kelley’s Covariation Model of Attributions based on 3 factors:
- Consistency
- Distinctiveness
- Consensus
what is consistency?
behavior looks at how a person acts in the same situation/context across time.
what is distinctiveness?
person’s actions must also be considered, which determines whether the person behaves similarly across different situations/contexts.
what is consensus?
compares the extent to which an individual’s behavior resembles the behavior of others
what types of consistency, distinctiveness, consensus for internal atributions?
high consistency, low distinctiveness, and low consensus
what types of consistency, distinctiveness, consensus for external attributions?
high consistency, high distinctiveness, and high consensus
Student X is taking a class that is highly interactive and writing intensive; all students are required to arrive promptly, and attendance is mandatory. However, Student X consistently arrives late to class and does not comply with the expected norms.Based on the information provided, which of the following best represents the desired normative behavior?
a Coming to class on time
b
Taking mid-day classes
c
Unrealistic expectations of the professor
d
Small classes are more challenging
a. coming to class on time
Explanation Coming to class on time is an example of a social norm -- something that is normal because it is a socially agreed upon practice.
During the first couple weeks of class, a pattern emerged where student X arrived late and disrupted class. Initially, student X arrived 5 minutes late, which quickly progressed to 10 minutes late. By the second week of class, student X was 20 minutes late.
What aspect of Kelley’s covariation theory considers the repeated late arrival of student X?
a
Consensus
b
Consistency
c
Distinctiveness
d
Divergence
b
Consistency
Explanation
In Kelley’s model, consistency is the measure of how frequently a behavior occurs in a certain context (e.g., does it happen “all the time”, “some of the time”, “rarely” or “not at all”?). Consistent behaviors are more likely to be the result of internal factors.
What aspect of Kelley’s covariation theory compares the late arrival of Student X to the on-time arrival of other students?
a
Consensus
b
Consistency
c
Distinctiveness
d
Divergence
a. consensus
Explanation
Consensus describes the level of agreement that a behavior is typical (i.e., “everyone would act this way in the same situation”). If a behavior has high consensus (that is, everyone agrees they would do the same), external attributions are more likely.
Student X blamed her lateness on parking problems, which assumes a(n) ______________ attribution.
a
internal
b
external
c
situational
d
dispositional
b. external
c. situational
Explanation
Internal and dispositional attributions mean the same thing – that some trait the person has is responsible for their behavior (e.g., that the person is bad at time management). That is not the case in this situation. By blaming the parking situation, the student is saying that external (or “situational”) factors explain why she is late. She is arguing that it isn’t her fault – the situation itself caused her to be late.
Wondering whether Student X has frontal-lobe damage or a psychological disorder assumes a(n) ______________ attribution is being made.
a
internal
b
external
c
situational
d
dispositional
a. internal
d. dispositional
Explanation
Internal and dispositional attributions mean the same thing – that some trait the person has is responsible for their behavior (e.g., that Student X has damage to their frontal lobe). The professor in this example is wondering if an internal attribution is appropriate.
What component of Kelley’s covariation model considers the similarity of Student X’s behavior in other courses?
a
Consensus
b
Consistency
c
Distinctiveness
d
Divergence
c
Distinctiveness
Explanation Distinctiveness considers the uniqueness of Student X's behavior (i.e., is it truly "unlike me", or is it really "like me"). In the example above, Student X is saying that her behavior in the class is high in distinctiveness -- that it's "unlike me". Upon consultation with the student's other instructors however, the professor learns that the the behavior is truly low in distinctiveness -- that these actions are "like me". If a behavior is high in distinctiveness, we tend to make external attributions (it's "unlike me" -- the situation made me act like this), while if a behavior is low in distinctiveness, we tend to make internal attributions (it's "like me" -- something about me caused this behavior).
Based on the totality of the situation, what type of attribution can be made about Student X?
a
External
b
Internal
b
Internal
Explanation
Based on the information that the student sends emails to all of her professors to excuse her lateness, an internal attribution seems appropriate – something internal to Student X (e.g., poor time management skills) tends to make her late, rather than something external to Student X (e.g., a family emergency).
Which of the following would represent a dispositional attribution? Select all that apply.
a
Jesse is lazy.
b
Joanna is intelligent.
c
Jasmine was stuck in traffic.
d
Jordan’s mom is ill.
a
Jesse is lazy.
b
Joanna is intelligent.
Explanation
“Jesse is lazy,” and “Joanna is intelligent,” are both dispositional (internal) attributions because they appeal to an internal characteristic or disposition to explain a behavior.
what is the fundamental attribution error?
the tendency to attribute the behaviour of other to internal/dispositional causes rather than to external/environemental causes
another error apart fundamental attribution error is … and explain it
actor-observer bias
on attributes the causes of one’s own behaviour to external causes and the behaviour of others to internal, dispositional causes
When assessing the behavior of others, we are not privy to their prior experiences or other situational factors that are at play, so we are more likely to minimize the influence of the environment and believe that the individual’s actions are a product of their personality and disposition. Due to the limited information, we assume that a person is behaving in a certain way because that is who they are.
what is a self-serving bias?
occurs when individuals credit their successes to internal/dispositional causes and their failures to external/situational causes. By perceiving your successes to be internally derived and your failures to be the result of external causes, your self-esteem is preserved
In addition to the FAE and self-serving bias, erroneous attributions also occur because of the
false consensus effect
what is the false consensus effect?
which occurs when we overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs (Ross, 1977). People assume that the ideas and opinions they embrace are not only correct and sound, but also shared by others around them.
Which of the following best represents the fundamental attribution error?
a
The reason why Keith feels depressed is a function of both nature and nurture.
b
Keanu failed the exam because he is lazy.
c
Rhonda was late because there was traffic.
d Ross got an A on the exam because the class was so easy.
b
Keanu failed the exam because he is lazy.
Explanation
“Keanu failed the exam because he is lazy,” is the best example of the fundamental attribution error because it appeals to an internal source for his behavior (failing the exam) rather than an external source (he had to work an extra shift and couldn’t study). The fundamental attribution error occurs when we jump to making internal attributions about other people’s behavior without considering possible external sources.
Which of the following helps preserve self-esteem?
a
Fundamental attribution error
b
Primacy effects in impression formation
c
False consensus effect
d
Self-serving bias
d
Self-serving bias
Explanation
The self-serving bias describes how we tend to divert blame for a bad outcome (e.g., failing an exam) from our own traits (e.g., poor time management) onto an external factor (e.g., a “tough” professor), and also how we tend to take credit for good outcomes (e.g., getting an “A” on an exam) by attributing our own abilities (e.g., being smart) and minimize external factors (e.g., a very helpful professor). Both of these features boost self-esteem.
what is the impression formation?
addresses how we formulate opinions about individuals or groups. Impression formation is heavily influenced by information that is initially available.
The most important part of how you perceive others and others perceive you is referred to as a
first impression
first impression is based on the
primacy effect
what is the primacy effect?
Basically, the primacy effect means that once an initial impression is formed, decreasing amounts of attention are given to subsequent information
what is typically given more weight than positive information when formulating impressions , negative or positive information?
negative information
this is particularly evident when negative information is received first, which capitalizes on the primacy effect.
what is confirmation bias?
The enduring nature of first impressions means that, if you like or dislike someone, you will invariably process information that is consistent with that impression, known as confirmation bias. Confirmation bias occurs when we are more likely to attend to and process facts or events that are consistent with our initial impression. Conversely, information that contradicts our beliefs is either discarded or ignored—we do not attend to disconfirming evidence.
In Western cultures, primacy effects more strongly impact
impression formation
When you meet someone for the first time, how quickly do you form an impression of that person?
a
Within seconds to minutes of meeting
b
After about 10 minutes
c
You formulate your impression based on the totality of your interaction.
d
You reserve judgment until you meet them in another context.
a
Within seconds to minutes of meeting
Explanation
First impressions develop within the first few seconds to minutes of meeting a person as we integrate available information about that person (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity, appearance, mannerisms, and speech) into a cohesive whole.
If your professor perceives you as a mature and responsible student, what would they most likely think if you came to class late?
a
The professor thinks that you are taking advantage of her good nature.
b
The professor attributes your lateness to lack of concern about your education.
c
The professor thinks that there must be some extenuating circumstances that caused your late arrival.
d
The professor changes her impression of you to being irresponsible.
c
The professor thinks that there must be some extenuating circumstances that caused your late arrival.
Explanation
We tend to try to understand a person’s behaviors in terms of our overall impression of them. In this case, that means explaining an otherwise mature and reliable student’s behavior in terms that make sense – reliable students don’t show up late, so there must be an external factor in play.
what is self-fulfiling prophecy?
when expected outcomes regarding the actions of others are more likely to occur because individuals unqittingly act in ways to bring about the behavior
You go to a party with friends and you feel confident, knowing you are looking good in the new clothes you bought. According to the self-fulfilling prophecy, which of the following would be most likely to occur?
a
You talk to new people, socialize, and enjoy the party.
b
You find everyone to be annoying and wish you had never agreed to come.
c
You meet some new people and find a seat and just watch others.
d
You drink too much and get sick.
a. You talk to new people, socialize, and enjoy the party.
Feeling confident will change the way you act at the party, likely making you more outgoing and sociable. Others will react to you positively based on your confidence and being sociable, resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Which of the following best explains Jennifer’s belief that everyone thinks the exam is hard?
a
Self-serving bias
b
Primacy effects
c
Fundamental attribution error
d
False consensus effect
d
False consensus effect
Explanation
Jennifer’s belief that everyone thinks the exam is too hard based on only her own experience – she thinks her own experience is similar to that of everyone else in the class. This is false however, an example of the false consensus effect.
Which of the following best explains why Jennifer is blaming the professor for her poor performance on the exam?
a
Self-serving bias
b
Primacy effects
c
Fundamental attribution error
d
False consensus effect
a
Self-serving bias
Explanation
Jennifer is making an external attribution to explain her poor performance on the exam: She is claiming that the test was too hard. Of the options presented, the most likely reason she would make this sort of attribution is to protect her self-esteem: If the test is too hard, then she is not to blame for her own poor performance. This is an example of the self-serving bias in action.
Which of the following best explains why the professor concludes that Jennifer lacks the skills needed for success and lacks motivation?
a
Self-serving bias
b
Primacy effects
c
Fundamental attribution error
d
False consensus effect
c
Fundamental attribution error
Explanation
The professor is making an internal attribution to explain Jennifer’s poor performance on the exam: She believes that Jennifer is unmotivated and lacks the skills to succeed. Of the options presented, the most likely reason the professor would make this sort of attribution is a failure to consider other circumstances in Jennifer’s life that might have caused her poor performance (e.g., being sick and unable to study). This is an example of the fundamental attribution error in action
Once we form an opinion about someone, which of the following explains why we attend to information that is consistent with our impressions and ignore information that is not consistent with our beliefs?
a
Self-fulfilling prophecy
b
Negative primacy effect
c
Fundamental attribution error
d
Confirmation bias
d
Confirmation bias
Explanation
Confirmation bias is a problem with the way we go about gathering evidence. We tend to look for evidence for beliefs we already have: If we believe a person is a good person, we tend to interpret their actions in a more positive light, for example.
People from Japan are more likely to demonstrate primacy effects in impression formation than people from the U.S.
true or false
false
Explanation
False – Japanese individuals are less likely to demonstrate primacy effects in impression formation compared to individuals from the United States.
Based on the descriptions provided, which person is more likely to be perceived positively?
a
Scott A. is a lazy, boring, and unreliable person, who is also kind, compassionate, and intelligent.
b
Scott B. is an intelligent, kind, and compassionate person; he can sometimes be boring, lazy and unreliable.
b
Scott B. is an intelligent, kind, and compassionate person; he can sometimes be boring, lazy and unreliable.
Explanation
Due to the primacy effect, Scott B. is more likely to be perceived positively (because his positive traits are listed first).
With regard to impression formation, even if your initial impression is negative, it can be easily changed if subsequent exposures are positive.
true or false
false
Explanation
False – Confirmation bias and the primacy effect work against us. If an initial impression is negative, it will be remembered well due to the primacy effect, and confirmation bias will guide us to seek out further evidence in favor of our negative impression.
When faced with uncertainty regarding social norms and expected behavior, we look to others to determine
the appropriate response
what is social influence?
a process by which our thoughts and actions are strongly influenced by the presence of others.
In ambiguous situations, people are more likely to behave
in ways that are consistent with those around them.
social norms are what?
prescribed behaviors that vary across contexts, cultures, and time.
As the situation changes, so does the expected response
In Western cultures, customs are
individualistic, so the focus is on individual gains over the betterment of the group.
In contrast, Eastern cultures are
collectivistic societies
what are collectivistic societies?
where the benefit of the group supersedes that of the individual. Asian cultures, such as Japan and China, are collectivistic societies, which must be considered when interpreting research and generalizing findings.
true or false?
Social norms also change over time and across generations
true
Variations in norms have been greatly influenced by changing
technology
what are social scripts?
learned behaviors that are expected across a variety of situations
Which of the following are examples of social norms? Select all that apply.
a
Students stop talking when their professor starts lecturing.
b
Richard cuts in front of others in line whenever he is in a hurry.
c
Students raise their hands to ask the instructor for permission to speak in class
d Despite class policy that expressly prohibits the use of cell phones‚ Amy texts her friends during class.
a
Students stop talking when their professor starts lecturing.
c
Students raise their hands to ask the instructor for permission to speak in class
Explanation
“Students stop talking when their professor starts lecturing,” and “Students raise their hands to ask the instructor for permission to speak in class,” are social norms. That is, they are in agreement with commonly agreed-upon “rules” for how to behave in the situations described. The other two options go against social norms.
solomon did research in what?
was interested in empirically testing how the presence of others directly affects conformity
what is conformity?
Conformity is the extent to which individuals modify their behavior to be consistent with the behavior of others in the group
ehat can affect the conformity?
the size of the groupe
Conformity increased when the number of confederates increased from one to three; however, once there were three confederates, the level of conformity did not change.
Conformity levels continue to be higher when
the group size and ambiguity of the task increase
Further replications of Asch’s research have revealed individual differences in conformity based on
personal characteristics, depends on the participants’ self reported levels of distress
locus of control affect conformity
Asch and other researchers found women to have
o have higher rates of agreement to incorrect responses than men
those with an external LOC are more likely to
to conform than those with an internal LOC
There are differences between Eastern and Western cultures, where those in collectivistic cultures are significantly
more likely to conform to the group than those in individualistic cultures.
what s groupthink?
Faulty decision making that occurs when high degree of conformity and group cohesion are higly valued, to the exclusion of opposing infomration and ideas.
According to Janis’s original theory of groupthink, there are three basic components that contribute to poor decision making
overestimating the group (an illusion of invulnerability and a belief in the inherent morality of the group),
closed-mindedness (collective rationalization and stereotyped views of an out-group),
and pressure for uniformity (direct pressure on dissenters, self-censorship, illusions of unanimity, and self-appointed mindguards).
what is an out-group?
the group that a person does not belong to. Members of the out-group are assumed to be highly homogenous.
what is Illusion of invulnerability
Excess optimism that increases risk-taking
Nothing could possibly go wrong
Collective rationalization is when
Minimize and/or disregard the warning of others
They don’t know what they are talking about – don’t waste your time
what is Belief in inherent morality
Belief that the group is looking out for the greater good
We are making the world a better place and know what we are doing
what is Stereotyped views
Hold negative views of out-groups and have high in-group favoritism
(They are not good people and we are better than them)
what is Direct pressure on dissenters
Group members are pressured to conform and not express diverging ideas/opinions (We all agree and no one cares what you think, so keep quiet)
Self-censorship is
The illusion of a united front makes members think that their ideas are incorrect/wrong.
(Everyone agrees, so there is no point in sharing my ideas – I am probably wrong anyway)
Illusion of unanimity is
The group appears unanimous because dissenting views are not considered. (Everyone agrees so there is nothing to discuss)
Self-appointed ‘mindguards’
Some group members want to protect the leader and the group by enforcing group cohesiveness and quashing dissenting ideas.
(The group agrees and no one want to hear your nonsense, so stay quiet)
Which person described below is most likely to conform his/her responses to match others?
a
Bob tends to be opinionated and likes to dominate conversations.
b
Seth is a student who doesn’t have many friends and is self-conscious.
c
Susan is a single mother who lobbies for women’s rights.
d
Francis is a psychology student who just read the social psychology chapter.
b
Seth is a student who doesn’t have many friends and is self-conscious.
Explanation
Conformity is most common when we wish to be liked or “fit in” with the group. Therefore Seth is the most likely to conform, as he is described as lacking many friends and being self-conscious.
According to the Asch’s research findings, ______________ percent of participants complied with an incorrect answer at least once.
75 %
Explanation
A whopping 75% of participants conformed at least once!
A person from which of the following countries would be most likely to conform to the incorrect responses of others?
a
The United States
b
Canada
c
Mexico
d
China
d. China
Explanation
China has a culture that is the most collectivistic/least individualistic; people from highly collectivistic cultures are more likely to conform in the face of social pressure, even if the conforming action is incorrect.
In a situation where groupthink is occurring, which of the following statements best represents the illusion of invulnerability?
a
If first you don’t succeed, then try again.
b
No one cares what we do.
c
Let’s do it—we never fail.
d
Everyone agrees, so stop wasting time.
c
Let’s do it—we never fail.
Explanation
An “illusion of invulnerability” relates to a false perception that a group is incapable of making mistakes or failure – they are too “caught up” in believing in their own hype to think failure is possible.
what is the Nuremberg code?
was a set of ethical guidelines that were put forth after the gruesome revelations of the mass genocide of millions of people and the horrific experiments done on unwilling men, women, and children.
The events in Nazi Germany are difficult to fully comprehend. But it is a devastating example of the fact that people may act in unimaginable, horrific ways under the pressure of
authority
what is obedience to authority?
when people perceived authority figures are capable of getting high levels of cooperation in tasks designed to directly harm others or cause severe pain in another without the use of coercion.
how many continued the shock until the end? at what volts?
65 % at 450 volts
Milgram developed a hierarchy of four standardized verbal prompts for the researcher to keep teachers on task
prompt 1: Please continue, or Please go on
Prompt 2: the experiment requires that you continue
Prompt 3: it is absolutely essential that you continue
Prompt 4: You have no other choice, you must go on.
note that all verbal prompts were benign in nature and there was no outward or implied use of force to continue participation
the effect of distance on obedience?
as the distance decreased, so did obedience.
The lowest level of obedience to authority occurred when the teacher had to
physically push the learner’s arm onto the shock plate. It is easier to knowingly harm others by inflicting pain and even death on them when it is done from a great distance
The shock generator used in Milgram’s experiments on obedience to authority appeared to have a maximum shock of ______________ volts. (Enter a whole number.)
450
In Milgram’s original design, ______________ % of participants administered all shocks to the learner. (Enter a whole number.)
65
Explanation
65% – nearly two-thirds of participants – obeyed the researcher and administered all shocks to the learner.
The predictions of local psychiatrists and psychologists on the percentage of people who will administer the final shock of 450 volts closely matched the actual results from Milgram’s studies.
true or false
false
Explanation
False – local psychiatrists and psychologists predicted that far fewer people (less than 1%) would obey the researcher in the study.
When Milgram moved his experiment from the campus of Yale University to a warehouse in downtown Bridgeport, Connecticut, what were his findings?
a
Participants level of conformity remained the same
b
Conformity increased by a small amount
c
Conformity dropped to a little less than 50%
d
Conformity dropped dramatically to about 5%
c
Conformity dropped to a little less than 50%
Explanation
Obedience levels dropped to just below 50%. Researchers believed that being in a warehouse made the researcher seem like less of an authority figured compared to being on the campus of Yale University, leading to lower rates of conformity.
in general social roles dictate
expected behaviors
Philip Zimbardo: The Stanford Prison Experiment
In the early 1970s, a professor at Stanford University, Phillip Zimbardo, wanted to examine the power of situations in determining behavior. Young men were solicited to participate in a 14-day prison simulation. Zimbardo selected 24 participants who were mentally and physically healthy. Participants were told that they would be randomly assigned the role of either prisoner or guard; there were 9 prisons, 9 guards, and 3 alternates for each position. is a chilling reminder of how people can become so caught up in a social role that they engage in some unspeakable acts of cruelty.
The Lucifer effect/the psychology of evil:
Zimbardo addresses the relative strength of internal and external factors that influence behavior and the types of attributions made. Zimbardo asserts that the line between good and evil is not fixed and can become blurred.
Which of the following best represents the events in at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq?
The power of the situation can be so great that good people do bad things.
Explanation
The events in the Abu Ghraib prison are reminiscent of Zimbardo’s prison study. Without strong guidelines and leadership, a situational role can lead people to do things they typically would not. The true irony of the situation is that this same logic may be applied to the reasons why the prisoners were in Abu Ghraib to begin with; extremism in all forms is usually the result of powerful social forces.
Phillip Zimbardo and Stanley Milgram grew up in the same area in the Bronx and were classmates in high school.
true or false
true
Zimbardo’s TED Talk asserts that in certain situations, all people can engage in evil acts/behaviors.
true or false
true
Explanation
TRUE – Zimbardo believes that people are shaped powerfully by the situations in which they find themselves.
According to Zimbardo, what factors must be considered when investigating heinous acts?
a
The system involved
b
The persons involved
c
The situation
d
All of the above
d
All of the above
Explanation
Zimbardo believes that people are shaped powerfully by the environments in which they find themselves – all of these are potentially relevant components of the environment.
In the Stanford Prison Experiment, how long did it take for the first prisoner to have a complete emotional collapse?
a
12 hours
b
36 hours
c
48 hours
d
3 days
36 hours
Participants in the Stanford Prison Experiment were informed that the local police would come to “arrest” them.
true or false
Explanation
FALSE – This is a common misconception about the Prison Study.
what is the bystander effect
A person in need is less likely to receive help as the number of people who ae present increases
This is because the level of inaction of others increases as the number of bystanders increase, so help is more likely to occur with fewer bystanders present.
Thus, if you have a terrible fall and are in apparent need of help, the bystander effect dictates that you are most likely to get help if there is ………. present rather than ……………..
1 person
20
“Lady in Distress.” These researchers wanted to determine how the presence of others affected participants’ responses to overhearing a woman fall and cry out in distress. In this classic experiment, the number of persons present was manipulated: participants were either alone, in the company of another participant, or they were in the company of a passive confederate.
results?
Results found that when participants were alone, 70% tried to help. When two participants were in the room helping dropped to 40%. Interestingly, when the two participants were friends, one of the friends helped 70% of the time. However, when participants were paired with an unconcerned and nonresponsive confederate, helping dropped to a mere 7%.
the highest levels of helping behavior were in
Latin American and Hispanic cultures, including the following countries: Brazil, Costa Rica, Mexico, and El Salvador
simpatia/simpatico
as “a range of amiable social qualities—to be friendly, nice, agreeable, and good-natured (i.e., a person who is fun to be with and pleasant to deal with; p. 555).” For those in these good-natured, social cultures, helping behaviors are consistent with the cultural script of simpatico.
Although there are cultural differences and other factors that affect helping, research has uncovered concepts to explain the bystander effect. Two of the most important are
the notion of diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance.
what is diffusion of responsability?
in the context of the bystander effect, as the number of people present increases, the relative level of accountability of each person decreases. when only one person is present, they assume 100 of the responsability
When explaining the bystander effect, diffusion of responsibility explains why there is
an inverse relationship between the number of bystanders and whether help is received
The key to understanding diffusion of responsibility is to recognize that
when multiple people are present, the responsibility is spread out over all those present. No one person is held accountable.
Diffusion of responsibility increases as
as the number of bystanders increase.
Social norms are based on
the observation of group behaviors and the recognition of social cues
We often rely on
on our social environment and group behavior to guide our everyday actions even though we may not be fully aware of the power of social influence.
In situations where there is uncertainty, we are more likely to behave in ways that
are consistent with the group
what is pluralistic ignorance
is a social psychological concept that occurs when people fail to act because they unwittingly rely on social cues from others to guide their behavior, without realizing that the referent others also face uncertainty.
thus, no one is acting
The researchers were interested in testing the bystander effect in a real-world environment and examined whether a male who collapsed on the floor of the subway car would be helped. results?
he findings did not support previous bystander research; the man who appeared ill was helped 95% of the time and was helped more quickly than the “drunk” man. Additionally, when aid was offered to the “sick” man, the race of the respondent varied; however, when the “drunk” man was in need, helping behavior dropped dramatically to 50% and the race of the victim and respondent were typically the same. Regarding the gender of the passengers, the gender ratio was 60% male/40% female. However, when help was offered, 90% of respondents were male.
Logically speaking, the appearance of blood would likely indicate a more serious situation than when no blood is present.
If you thought the man with no blood present would be helped more and more quickly than when blood was present, then you are correct.
When you consider blood-borne pathogens and people’s squeamish response to the sight of blood, a lack of action makes sense. Vaillancourt et al. (2008) found in a meta-analysis that people, whether CPR certified or not, are less likely to give CPR when there is blood, vomit, body odor, or the smell of alcohol, which is consistent with the findings of Piliavin and colleagues
Factors that affect helping
- Environment (urban vs. rural)
- Sense of common fate (e.g., subway car)
- Perceive help is needed
- Risk to self (e.g., blood present)
- Personal factors – in hurry, ability to help
Based on the summative findings, helping behavior was affected by three overarching themes:
(1) the likelihood of getting help decreases significantly when the situation is perceived as dangerous relative to not dangerous; (2) less help is given when a perpetrator is present in comparison to being absent; and (3) helping behavior decreases when physical actions are required in relation to non-physical actions.
Diffusion of responsibility
The key to understanding diffusion of responsibility is to recognize that when multiple people are present, the responsibility is spread out over all those present. Diffusion of responsibility increases as the number of bystanders increase.
Simply shouting, “Someone help that child!” is not enough, as
as the responsibility is spread to all who hear the cries for help, which can reduce helping behavior. Ideally, you would identify one person who could swim and start the rescue. However, in such a dire situation, you would also want to assign other roles to specific people (identify one person to call 911 and get the paramedics).
For those who live in small towns, the possibility of getting help is ….increased/decreased? but those in urban areas
increased because there is a higher probability that you know the person in need. In large urban areas, the relative anonymity of those around us increases, which subsequently decreases helping behavior.
What social psychological principles are occurring in the comic below? (Click on the image to zoom in.) Select all that apply.
Explanation
The bystander effect is illustrated; diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance contribute to the bystander effect.
You are most likely to get help from others when there is/are ______________ bystander(s).
1
Explanation
One bystander is the most likely to feel responsible, and is less likely to be susceptible to pluralistic ignorance.
When uncertain what to do in a situation, people may fail to act because they rely on the social cues from others to determine appropriate behavior, but they fail to recognize that others are similarly uncertain and are also looking for directive social cues. Which one of the following best describes the above situation?
a
Social norms
b
Pluralistic ignorance
c
Social influence
d
Bystander effect
Pluralistic ignorance
Pluralistic ignorance best describes the above situation, as it is related to how people look to others to act when unsure of what to do – but others may also be unsure of what to do. The other answers are all relevant, but not the best possible answer.
Which of the following would be most effective in getting help in an emergency situation?
a
Yelling for someone to help you
b
Blowing a whistle loudly, followed by instructions
c
Point directly at someone and ask that person for help
d
All of the above are equally effective
c
Point directly at someone and ask that person for help
Explanation
Pointing at someone directly and asking them for help is the option that is most likely to reduce the occurrence of pluralistic ignorance and diffusion of responsibility.
People’s Temple - Jim Jones
•Charismatic leader •Isolation and fear– moved to remote area in South America •Jones had psychological & physical control •Mass suicide of 900 members
Cults are typically built around
a charismatic leader, and members of the group often use “love-bombing,” where existing followers lure recruits and shower them with attention, affection, and interest. Converts are greeted with acceptance and soon find themselves around only other people affiliated with the cult. The new member may not realize some of the tactics used to isolate them from outsiders. For example, if the group is going to an event, members all get on the “church” bus and go together. Over time and through a series of what appear to be innocuous social events, leaders exert their influence and power over followers.
There are several commonalities among people who join cults. In particular, joining is more appealing to the disenfranchised, who tend to be
young, lonely, uneducated, and gullible.
what used Jones to gain the trust and complete commitment of his followers?
conformity,
strict obedience
and other psychologicl concepts
what is an escalation of commitment?
the more time one remains in an interpersonal relationship or as a member of a group, despite experiencing increasingly negative outcomes, the more difficult it is to leave the relationship
Twenty years before the People’s Temple, a cult built by Dorothy Martin grew around her reported communications with extraterrestrial beings and prophecies of the world’s destruction
While acting as new recruits, these researchers carefully documented and analyzed the actions of the cult leaders and members; this was a unique opportunity to gather first-hand accounts of the inner workings of a cult as newcomers and as scientists, a fact that was carefully concealed.
For members of the doomsday cult, when faced with the reality that the world was not ending and no spaceship was coming, what did most members do? (Make a prediction.)
a
They resumed their lives as they were prior to the cult, reuniting with family and friends.
b
They resumed their lives in another area, feeling embarrassment and manipulated.
c
They remained with the cult, even more committed now that they had all saved the world.
d
They remained in contact with members, but no longer believing in the powers of Dorothy Martin.
c
They remained with the cult, even more committed now that they had all saved the world.
Explanation
Correct – read on to learn about cognitive dissonance theory and how we can explain this seemingly strange finding.
Which of the following persons would be likely to join a cult?
a
Tom is 57; he has been married to his wife for 30 years and is vaguely dissatisfied with his life.
b
Henry is 22; he failed out of college and has never dated anyone and his only “friends” are people he talks to at work.
c
Stan is 25; he has no family friends but has a lot of close friends. He lives with two good friends that he has had since he was 16.
d
Joe is 18. He graduated high school and is currently working two jobs to save for college.
b
Henry is 22; he failed out of college and has never dated anyone and his only “friends” are people he talks to at work.
Explanation
Vulnerable, socially-isolated individuals tend to be the most susceptible to joining cults, as they are often very responsive to the positive validation that cults give to their members.
Leaders of cults are often perceived by members as charismatic.
true or false
TRUE – Leaders of cults are typically seen to be perfect or beyond reproach, and very adept with social skills.
what are attitudes?
represent variations in thoughts , ideas and opinions
We are born with no pre-set ideas; all attitudes are learned and are shaped by personal experience, direct instruction from others, and the ideas we observe in others, which may be positive, negative, or neutral.
There are three components of attitudes about a person or object
cognitive, affective, and behavioral manifestations
the cognitive component is
addresses the thoughts one may have about someone or something
affective component indicates
includes one’s feelings about the attitude in question.
behavioral component adresses
addresses the actions taken
The Implicit Association Test (IAT) was designed to
was designed to quantify feelings and opinions about sensitive issues that would be difficult to self-report accurately.
One way that you could test the reliability of the measure is to
o choose one of the attitudes that are listed (e.g., feelings about overweight/obese people) and take it today and a few days from now. Note where your final score fell and see if you get the same score days later. That would be a measure of the test-retest reliability of the measure.
Please match the description given with the attitude component.
Susan goes to the movies to see a feature film starring her favorite actor.
Press space or enter to grab Cognitive
Felix believes that his Range Rover is safer than his friend’s Kia based on safety reports.
Press space or enter to grab Affective
Jasper is terrified of snakes
- behavioral
- cognitive
- affective
Explanation
Being terrified is an emotional reaction, and is therefore an affective component. Going to the movies is an action, and therefore a behavioral component. Believing that a Range Rover is a very safe vehicle is a thought, and therefore a cognitive component.
After the prophecy failed, persons outside the cult were puzzled as to why
members did not defect and move on with their lives
what is the cognitive dissonance theory
Festinger developed the cognitive dissonance theory to explain what happens when people’s attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent.
what is level of cognitive dissonance?
when attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent, a state of unease is felt, which the individual is then motivated to reduce.
members of the doomsday cult experienced when the prophecy failed. Dissonance levels were high when you consider that followers had surrendered all their worldly possessions, which was predicated on the belief that the world was ending. After joining the cult, members typically severed ties to the outside world, including relationships with family, friends, and others who were not cult members.
High levels of cognitive dissonance occur when
when there are large discrepancies between one’s attitudes and behaviors.
The experience of cognitive dissonance causes discomfort, particularly when the incongruent attitudes or behaviors are important to the individual; large disparities between attitudes and actions cause significant internal distress. When there are strong feelings of cognitive dissonance, the individual is highly motivated to reduce the level of incongruence.
Some of the ways people can reduce cognitive dissonance include
1) changing the attitude, (2) changing the behavior, (3) distorting attitude(s), or (4) distorting perceived behavior(s).
he theory of cognitive dissonance helps explain why
why people do not practice what they preach.
Which of the following would cause the greatest state of cognitive dissonance?
a
Miriam typically recycles but accidentally threw a can in the trash.
b
Carrie is concerned about money and is clipping coupons.
c
Josef is an active animal rights advocate and vegan. After feeling hungry from his run, he eats a bowl of his mom’s beef stew but tells no one.
d
Sarah hates showing her calves, but her school uniform is a skort (a skirt with built-in shorts) that only reaches the bottom of her knees.
Explanation
Josef’s decision to eat a bowl of beef stew is both (1) intentional and (2) conflicts with the cognitive component of his veganism. In this case, his behavior conflicts with the cognitive component of his attitude. (If he enjoyed the stew, his affective component would also be in conflict with the cognitive component of his attitude.)
Which of the following can reduce cognitive dissonance? Select all that apply.
a
Change your attitude
b
Change your behavior
c
Maintain your attitude
d
Maintain your behavior
a
Change your attitude
b
Change your behavior
Explanation
If we consider cognitive dissonance as a mis-alignment of attitudinal components, the only way to reduce it is to change our belief (the cognitive component of our attitude) or to change our behavior.
Clive has given all his worldly possessions to the cult he joined. He no longer has any contact with his family and has no friends other than cult members. The cult leader told members when the world would end and how aliens would save them. When the world did not end, Clive remained in the cult and became more convinced that the leader was a prophet. What best explains Clive’s behavior?
a
Attribution theory
b
Behavior reinforcement
c
Obedience to authority
d
Cognitive dissonance theory
e
Conformity
d
Cognitive dissonance theory
Explanation
Clive’s actions (abandoning his family and giving away his possessions) are in conflict with the belief that the cult leader could be mistaken. Cognitive dissonance results from this, and it is far easier to dismiss the idea that the leader is wrong than it is to change your entire way of life.
what are stereotypes?
are attitudes and opinions about people based on the group they are affiliated with. Although some people share similar traits, the problem with stereotyping others is that we assume that group members share identical traits.
The perception of differences in groups varies based on
on the group affiliation of the perceiver. For example, members of different fraternities or sororities consider their own fraternity or sorority to be composed of a diverse/heterogeneous group of people. However, when evaluating other fraternities and sororities, there is an assumption of homogeneity.
what means members that are homogenous?
members that are similar
what is a stereotype threat?
occurs when a person or group experiences significant fear of confirming negative expectations about one’s own social group, which ultimately adversely affects performance.
When placed in situations where an individual is afraid that their performance will be consistent with the prevailing stereotype, the result is known as the stereotype threat
what is prejudice?
learned, negative attitudes or opinions that a person has towards certain groups who share similar characteristics.
example of prejudice?
racism, bigotry
gender, ethnicity, religion, country of origin, skin color, sexual preference, body size, and a host of other characteristics.
are we inherently born to be prejudiced toward any specific group
non!!
prejudiced attitudes are learned
Initially, parents and caregivers have a substantial effect on learning to hate others and the target of that hate. The target of prejudice is learned from parents, peers, first-hand experience, and vicarious conditioning.
difference between prejudice and discrimination
prejudice relates to attitudes while discrimination is related to behavior
In urban areas, minority groups have
high levels of prejudice and target discrimination at other minorities
The reason for high degrees of discrimination and hate between minorities is based on the concept of a …. and…
scapegoat
the potential result is a group channeling their rage at another minority group with even less power. The premise of scapegoat theory is that people can feel more empowered when they exert power over others who have less power than themselves.
what is a scapegoat?
intergroup conflict that occurs when 2 or more groups are competing over real or perceived scarce resources( ex: jobs, money, power, social status). This often leads to feelings of prejudice, extreme dislike, and malice towards the competing groups.
explanation for hatred across minorities?
scapegoat
realistic conflict theory
what is realistic conflict theory?
based on the idea that there are few desirable jobs available, so the competition for these limited resources creates conflict.
One way in which we can reduce discrimination is
is for people of equal status to work toward a common goal
what is In-group?
the group that a person belongs to; is perceived to be superior to other groups.
what is mutual interdependence?
refers to the need for individuals or groups to work together toward a common goal
Thus, the groups needed to work together toward a common goal. For example, the water line was disrupted, and the groups needed to work together to restore the water supply.
Traditionally speaking (prior to the advent of digital devices), people liked others based on a number of factors, such as….
explain similaritie
link with opposites may attract
similarity and proximity. Similarity refers to the fact that we tend to like others who share similar ideologies and interests to us. Although most have heard the adage “opposites attract,” the flip side of that is “similarity breeds content.” Opposites may attract, but in lasting relationships, those who are “opposite” have complementary characteristics so that the strengths and weaknesses of each person complement the other. For example, if one person in the relationship is disorganized and tends to forget to pay bills on time, then it would be advantageous for the other partner to be highly organized.
Elaine Walster and her associates (1966)
wanted to determine what attribute participants used to determine whether they wanted to see their blind date again. Walster found that 100% of those on a blind date chose to go on a second date based solely on physical attractiveness.
Another factor that affects who we like is proximity, or
physical nearness. In the context of liking others, we are more likely to meet and befriend those who live close to us. For example, as a college freshman, you may have initially developed friendships with other students in your hall or in your dorm. Additionally, you may befriend other classmates who sit near you in class. For students taking classes about a mutually interesting topic, both proximity and similarity can influence liking. We also like people who like us. Additionally, the more time and experience we have with another person can also increase our liking, a phenomenon known as the mere exposure effect
what is mere exposure effect?
the more time and experience that we have to someone is associated with an increased linking of that person.
People who are considered attractive are also assumed to possess
positive personality traits
beauty is strongly assumed to be associated with positive characteristics.
The ______________ effect dictates that the more occasions that you interact with someone, the more you will like them.
a
scapegoat
b
mere exposure
c
cognitive dissonance
d
positive attitudes
b
mere exposure
Explanation
The mere exposure effect is precisely this – interacting with (being exposed to) a person more often tends to lead to liking that person more often.
Which of the following would reduce discrimination? Select all that apply.
a
Being of equal status
b
Working toward a common goal
c
Playing competitive games that are fun
d
Living in close proximity to another group
a
Being of equal status
b
Working toward a common goal
Explanation
Being of equal status makes it less likely that one of the groups can be effectively used as a scapegoat, while working toward a common goal yields mutual interdependence.
Match each behavior with its description.
stereotype, prejudice, or discrimination
- assigning positive or negative attributes bsed on a shared characteristic
- Negatve attitudes about persons grouped together based on a shared characteristic
- Negative or unjust behaviors towards persons who share similar characteristics to a disliked group
stereotype 1
prejudice 2
discrimination 3
Homework: People underestimate the extent to which they are influenced by superficial characteristics in others.
true
Homework: In general, we are most influenced by appearance than any other characteristic.
true
agression can be expected? in which domain
yes, sports
but sometimes is also undesirable
2 types of agression?
instrumental agression
hostile agression
what is instrumental aggression? give an example
violent behavior is purposeful and is a means to achieve some goal. For example, when playing football, players must tackle and act aggressively to move the ball down the field and score. Although there is no intent to cause serious harm to another, the use of physical force is necessary to obtain the desired result.
what is hostile aggression? and give examples
are for the sole purpose of inflicting harm on another living creature (human or animal). The perpetrator of such senseless acts of violence may react with depraved indifference and lack remorse. The intent of hostile aggression is to do harm to another person, which can lead to serious injury or even death of the victim as well as the possible incarceration of the perpetrator.
Theory of Biological models of aggression:
Biological models explain differences in aggression levels in humans and animals as a function of genetics, hormones, and brain physiology. The heritability of aggression is estimated to be approximately .6, meaning that 60% of the variability in levels of aggression are attributed to genetics.
agression can be in different forms
physical and verbal
what agression women are more likely to use, verbally or physically?
but men? which may be a byproduct of …
verbally aggressive
physcally aggressive
of the hormone testosterone
which biological structure in the brain plays a role in aggression in humans and animals? and what if inhibition of it
amygdala
Neural stimulation of the amygdala in animals results in violent outbursts, while neural inhibition results in docile behavior, even in animals prone to violence.
what factors strongly influence displays of violence and aggresison?
biological factors
environemetal factors
Environmental theories of Aggression: by Bandura
- behavior modeling
- Social Learning
Exposure to violent models in person or on film resulted in high levels of imitation-based aggression, where many of the behaviors were nearly exact replications of the adult model. Modeling violent acts is heightened when the model is reinforced for their actions rather than punished. Consistent with previous research on gender differences in aggression, boys not only like the violent portrayal more than girls, but the degree of violence displayed by boys also vastly exceeded that displayed by girls in all conditions, including affective ratings of the aggressive vignette.
Children exposed to either real-life or filmed segments of children or adults engaging in violent behavior were more likely to subsequently exhibit high levels of imitation aggression and non-imitation aggression than children exposed to non-violent models and control groups
what is behavior modeling
learning to complete a task by simply copying the behaviour of another person
what is social learning?
learning behaviors and skills by watching others engage in those behaviors
Modeling violent acts is heightened when the model is reinforced for their actions rather than
punished
A variety of simulations revealed that children were more likely to model a villain’s behavior when that villain was victorious.
Thus, although children imitated the aggressive actions of the victorious villain, they did not positively identify with the immoral beliefs and characteristics of the character.
onsistent with previous research on gender differences in aggression, boys not only liked
the violent portrayal more than girls, but the degree of violence displayed by boys also vastly exceeded that displayed by girls in all conditions, including affective ratings of the aggressive vignette.
Which of the following statements does NOT support the biological model of aggression?
a
Men are more aggressive than women due to men’s levels of testosterone.
b
Hyperactivity of the amygdala increases aggression in animals.
c
Watching violence within your community increases aggression.
d
Genetic differences explain differences in expressed aggression.
c
Watching violence within your community increases aggression.
Explanation
Watching violence within your community increases aggression, which describes a role for social interaction in the likelihood of aggressive behavior.
Which of the following best explains Albert Bandura’s theory behind aggression?
a
Violent behavior is quickly learned by watching aggressive models who are rewarded.
b
Multiple exposures to violent behavior are necessary prior to performing the behavior.
c
We are all born with the drive to behave aggressively.
d
Aggression is learned through direct reinforcement and punishment.
a
Violent behavior is quickly learned by watching aggressive models who are rewarded.
Explanation
Albert Bandura’s theory related to how people learn to be aggressive from others; watching a model be rewarded for aggressive behavior is the best example of this.
Which of the following persons is most likely to behave aggressively?
a
Steven is rewarded by his parents for his kind and polite behavior. He visits his elderly grandmother in a nursing home every Saturday even though he really finds the elderly residents to be annoying.
b
Stuart has an older brother, Jason, whom he loves and admires. Stuart keeps watch as Jason takes money out of the donations basket at church and tells Jason that another kid saw. The other kid is a year younger than Jason. Jason punched him repeatedly and told him not to talk or he would “get it worse.” Jason then took the kid’s wallet, which had another $40 in it. Jason stole over $200 and gave Stuart $40 for keeping watch.
c
Mary loves to watch violent TV shows and movies. She is taking Karate lessons at the local YMCA for self-protection. She carries pepper spray and a rape whistle in case she is ever attacked.
d
Jeremy’s father is incarcerated and serving a 25-year sentence for armed robbery. Jeremy has never met his father but finds that he gets frustrated easily, and he is worried that this is a sign that he will turn out like his father. One Saturday, Jeremy was really tired, so he slept and did not finish his chores before his mom got home. She was furious and yelled, “Keep this up and you will turn out like your good-for-nothing father.”
b.
Explanation
Stuart is most likely to be aggressive because he is watching someone else be aggressive and be rewarded for it.
true or false?
Women tend to be verbally aggressive rather than physically aggressive.
TRUE – Gender differences in aggression are most pronounced in terms of the type of aggression (verbal or physical).
Mark plays rugby and often gets psyched up with his teammates to beat the other team and try to take down their good players early in the game. This is an example of ______________ aggression.
a
hostile
b
instrumental
c
verbal
d
orchestral
b
instrumental
Explanation
Instrumental aggression is when aggression is used as a tool to accomplish a goal.
Simon likes to intimidate the other kids in his class. Simon knows that he is extremely good-looking but the girl he wants to date won’t go out with him because she is dating this loser named Brad. Simon often has fantasies about hurting Brad. Simon has devised a plan that he is going to jump Brad and hurt him without getting caught. This is an example of __________ aggression.
a
hostile
b
instrumental
c
verbal
d
orchestral
a
hostile
Explanation
Hostile aggression is when aggressive acts are done with the sole goal of harming another person or animal – that is what Simon is exhibiting in this story.
what is prosocial behaviors or altruism?
are behaviors that are done to benefit another without the expectation of anything in return. This concept includes people who volunteer their time and resources to help others because they want to help, which excludes mandatory community service. Behaving altruistically involves putting the needs of others over your own where there is no personal gain. Acts of altruism are unlike any behavior discussed in this chapter thus far.
Prosocial behaviors can even be found among different animal species.
More than a century ago, Kropotkin (1902) watched the behavior of two monkeys who were in adjoining cages, where one had food and the other had nothing. What was remarkable was that the chimpanzee who had the food appeared to take stock of his food before voluntarily passing food to the chimp in the adjoining cage.
The point of hesitation prior to sharing was believed to mark a moment of decision making, which involves a higher-order process rather than mere instinct.
pure altruism provide guarentee of anything in return?
non
what is reciprocal altruism
enganging in what appears to be prosocial behaviors with expectation of getting something in return.
this idea applied to humans as well as primates and asserted that these behaviors have evolved over time. The concept of reciprocal altruism implies that there is an expectation of some form of returned gesture that would require long-term scorekeeping; these explanations deviate from the idea of pure altruism that is based on selfless acts of kindness.
These researchers found that reporting acts of altruism are not perceived as bragging if
if the audience was previously unaware of the information. However, if the acts of altruism are already known, then the individual is perceived as bragging, which effectively negates the purpose of altruism. Seeking admiration and the appearance of generosity are not inherently altruistic reasons, because then the purpose of engaging in prosocial behaviors is for personal gain, such as being perceived in a positive light.
Kropotkin (1902)
watched the behavior of two monkeys who were in adjoining cages, where one had food and the other had nothing. What was remarkable was that the chimpanzee who had the food appeared to take stock of his food before voluntarily passing food to the chimp in the adjoining cage. Kropotkin asserted that the primate’s behavior was a form of cooperation with a non-relative. The point of hesitation prior to sharing was believed to mark a moment of decision-making, which involves a higher-order process rather than mere instinct.
The cooperation between primates observed by Kropotkin was later identified as reciprocal altruism by Trivers (1971):
that there is an expectation of some form of returned gesture that would require long-term scorekeeping; these explanations deviate from the pure idea of altruism that is based on selfless acts of kindness.
an example of sex-typed
When the gender of the individual matches the identified gender role (e.g., women score high on femininity and low on masculinity; men who score high on masculinity and low on femininity), these persons are considered to be sex-typed
what is considered androgynous
When considering gender roles, persons who endorse high levels of both traditionally feminine characteristics (e.g., compassionate, loves children) and traditionally masculine characteristics (e.g., leader, independent) are considered to be androgynous.
When persons rate individuals with different personality types, in comparison to sex-typed persons, both males and females who have androgynous personality characteristics are perceived
more positively overall and rated as more attractive by heterosexual members of the opposite gender
Which of the following are real examples of altruism? Select all that apply.
a
Giving your old clothes to Goodwill so that you have a tax deduction
b
Visiting a nursing home to make the residents feel valued
c
Buying a $20 raffle ticket for a chance to win a free car
d
Volunteering your time at a local school to help tutor children
e
Anonymously donating a Thanksgiving meal to a family in need
f
Buying six boxes of Girl Scout cookies because they are tasty and only available once a year
b,d,e
Explanation
Notice that each of the incorrect answers involve receiving a reward (or the possibility of a reward) in return for a “charitable” act.
Which of the following best describes the research on altruism?
a
Men always offer more help than women.
b
For men, altruism has become an instinctive response.
c
Women can develop more intuitive responses.
d
Gender roles have no effect on altruism.
c.
Explanation
Women who are sex-typed (primarily endorse feminine gender roles) are the most likely to act altruistically automatically and intuitively.
When something is reciprocal, it implies
a give and take between two (or more) people.
what is the reciprocity form? example dans la vrai vie
the idea that if others help us, then we should provide something in return.
If one person is constantly compromising and the other person is unwilling to make any sacrifices, then the inequity is likely to damage that relationship.
Three common forms of gaining compliance are
the foot-in-the-door technique,
the door-in-the-face technique
lowballing
the compliance method differ in
the initial request made, the use of reciprocity or other methods of compliance, and the ultimate intended outcome.
the foot-in-the-door technique
With Foot-in-the-Door, the initial request is small, so people willingly participate. In the week or so following, you make another request, but this one is large and not that appealing. However, a significant number will comply because they begin to perceive themselves as responsible citizens who are committed to helping others. This technique works best when the first request makes the targets feel good about themselves as people.
the door-in-the-face technique
Door-in-the-face is another method that relies on the reciprocity norm. When using door-in-the-face, the initial request is large and met with rejection, so a smaller request is made and then accepted. This method is effective because the requester compromised from the initial request, and this gesture is then reciprocated by the target.
lowballing technique1:
Lowballing is a technique most commonly associated with car salesmen. The initial offer seems great and you are committed to the purchase, and then the deal is not as good. There are added fees and other charges that sour the deal; however, the salesperson is relying on the customer’s commitment to owning the vehicle in question. The salesperson also uses the reciprocity norm. There are numerous means of triggering the feeling of indebtedness and the need for reciprocity. Customers are provided with free beverages and snacks. Lowballing rests on the assumption that you want the vehicle, so much so that you will still purchase it even after the added fees have changed the price.
For each description, select the item on the right that best explains the behavior.
cognitive dissonance or altruism
- Jason signed the pledge not to text while driving‚ but since he was on a straight highway with cruise control‚ he knew he could safely answer some important text messages.
- Susan donates blood to help those in need.
- Stan was told by his doctor not to eat or drink after midnight for a surgery the next day. In the morning‚ Stan was thirsty and his mouth was extremely dry‚ so he drank a glass of water. He knew that most of the body is water and he could easily pee it out.
- Richard makes a $50‚000 anonymous donation to help a young girl get a bone marrow transplant.
- cognitive dissonance
- altruism
- cognitive dissonance
- altruism
door-in-face
foot-in the door
lowballing
Donna agreed to foster a cat while a home could be found. After several weeks‚ the shelter asked Donna if she would keep the cat because they were unable to find the cat a permanent home.
foot-in-the-door
door-in-face
foot-in the door
lowballing
Tina and Chris were on vacation and were staying at a new hotel. Both hungry and tired‚ they decided to order room service. The prices seemed reasonable. They ordered $22 worth of food. When the food was delivered‚ Tina opened the bill and it said the total was $39.55! Tina was upset because she could not understand how it could be that much and the hotel staff explained that there were taxes and service charges. Tina was angry‚ but they were hungry‚ it was late‚ and there was nothing else she could do.
lowballing
