Chapter 13 midterm 2 Flashcards

Question

another error apart fundamental attribution error is ... and explain it

Answer 1

actor-observer bias on attributes the causes of one's own behaviour to external causes and the behaviour of others to internal, dispositional causes When assessing the behavior of others, we are not privy to their prior experiences or other situational factors that are at play, so we are more likely to minimize the influence of the environment and believe that the individual’s actions are a product of their personality and disposition. Due to the limited information, we assume that a person is behaving in a certain way because that is who they are.

Answer 2

occurs when individuals credit their successes to internal/dispositional causes and their failures to external/situational causes. By perceiving your successes to be internally derived and your failures to be the result of external causes, your self-esteem is preserved

Answer 3

false consensus effect

Answer 4

which occurs when we overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs (Ross, 1977). People assume that the ideas and opinions they embrace are not only correct and sound, but also shared by others around them.

Answer 5

b Keanu failed the exam because he is lazy. Explanation "Keanu failed the exam because he is lazy," is the best example of the fundamental attribution error because it appeals to an internal source for his behavior (failing the exam) rather than an external source (he had to work an extra shift and couldn't study). The fundamental attribution error occurs when we jump to making internal attributions about other people's behavior without considering possible external sources.

Answer 6

d Self-serving bias Explanation The self-serving bias describes how we tend to divert blame for a bad outcome (e.g., failing an exam) from our own traits (e.g., poor time management) onto an external factor (e.g., a "tough" professor), and also how we tend to take credit for good outcomes (e.g., getting an "A" on an exam) by attributing our own abilities (e.g., being smart) and minimize external factors (e.g., a very helpful professor). Both of these features boost self-esteem.

Answer 7

addresses how we formulate opinions about individuals or groups. Impression formation is heavily influenced by information that is initially available.

Answer 8

first impression

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primacy effect

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Basically, the primacy effect means that once an initial impression is formed, decreasing amounts of attention are given to subsequent information

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negative information this is particularly evident when negative information is received first, which capitalizes on the primacy effect.

Answer 12

The enduring nature of first impressions means that, if you like or dislike someone, you will invariably process information that is consistent with that impression, known as confirmation bias. Confirmation bias occurs when we are more likely to attend to and process facts or events that are consistent with our initial impression. Conversely, information that contradicts our beliefs is either discarded or ignored—we do not attend to disconfirming evidence.

Answer 13

impression formation

Answer 14

a Within seconds to minutes of meeting Explanation First impressions develop within the first few seconds to minutes of meeting a person as we integrate available information about that person (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity, appearance, mannerisms, and speech) into a cohesive whole.

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c The professor thinks that there must be some extenuating circumstances that caused your late arrival. Explanation We tend to try to understand a person's behaviors in terms of our overall impression of them. In this case, that means explaining an otherwise mature and reliable student's behavior in terms that make sense -- reliable students don't show up late, so there must be an external factor in play.

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when expected outcomes regarding the actions of others are more likely to occur because individuals unqittingly act in ways to bring about the behavior

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a. You talk to new people, socialize, and enjoy the party. Feeling confident will change the way you act at the party, likely making you more outgoing and sociable. Others will react to you positively based on your confidence and being sociable, resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Answer 18

d False consensus effect Explanation Jennifer's belief that everyone thinks the exam is too hard based on only her own experience -- she thinks her own experience is similar to that of everyone else in the class. This is false however, an example of the false consensus effect.

Answer 19

a Self-serving bias Explanation Jennifer is making an external attribution to explain her poor performance on the exam: She is claiming that the test was too hard. Of the options presented, the most likely reason she would make this sort of attribution is to protect her self-esteem: If the test is too hard, then she is not to blame for her own poor performance. This is an example of the self-serving bias in action.

Answer 20

c Fundamental attribution error Explanation The professor is making an internal attribution to explain Jennifer's poor performance on the exam: She believes that Jennifer is unmotivated and lacks the skills to succeed. Of the options presented, the most likely reason the professor would make this sort of attribution is a failure to consider other circumstances in Jennifer's life that might have caused her poor performance (e.g., being sick and unable to study). This is an example of the fundamental attribution error in action

Answer 21

d Confirmation bias Explanation Confirmation bias is a problem with the way we go about gathering evidence. We tend to look for evidence for beliefs we already have: If we believe a person is a good person, we tend to interpret their actions in a more positive light, for example.

Answer 22

false Explanation False -- Japanese individuals are less likely to demonstrate primacy effects in impression formation compared to individuals from the United States.

Answer 23

b Scott B. is an intelligent, kind, and compassionate person; he can sometimes be boring, lazy and unreliable. Explanation Due to the primacy effect, Scott B. is more likely to be perceived positively (because his positive traits are listed first).

Answer 24

false Explanation False -- Confirmation bias and the primacy effect work against us. If an initial impression is negative, it will be remembered well due to the primacy effect, and confirmation bias will guide us to seek out further evidence in favor of our negative impression.

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the appropriate response

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a process by which our thoughts and actions are strongly influenced by the presence of others.

Answer 27

in ways that are consistent with those around them.

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prescribed behaviors that vary across contexts, cultures, and time. As the situation changes, so does the expected response

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individualistic, so the focus is on individual gains over the betterment of the group.

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collectivistic societies

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where the benefit of the group supersedes that of the individual. Asian cultures, such as Japan and China, are collectivistic societies, which must be considered when interpreting research and generalizing findings.

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technology

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learned behaviors that are expected across a variety of situations

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a Students stop talking when their professor starts lecturing. c Students raise their hands to ask the instructor for permission to speak in class Explanation "Students stop talking when their professor starts lecturing," and "Students raise their hands to ask the instructor for permission to speak in class," are social norms. That is, they are in agreement with commonly agreed-upon "rules" for how to behave in the situations described. The other two options go against social norms.

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was interested in empirically testing how the presence of others directly affects conformity

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Conformity is the extent to which individuals modify their behavior to be consistent with the behavior of others in the group

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the size of the groupe Conformity increased when the number of confederates increased from one to three; however, once there were three confederates, the level of conformity did not change.

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the group size and ambiguity of the task increase

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personal characteristics, depends on the participants' self reported levels of distress locus of control affect conformity

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o have higher rates of agreement to incorrect responses than men

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to conform than those with an internal LOC

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more likely to conform to the group than those in individualistic cultures.

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Faulty decision making that occurs when high degree of conformity and group cohesion are higly valued, to the exclusion of opposing infomration and ideas.

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overestimating the group (an illusion of invulnerability and a belief in the inherent morality of the group), closed-mindedness (collective rationalization and stereotyped views of an out-group), and pressure for uniformity (direct pressure on dissenters, self-censorship, illusions of unanimity, and self-appointed mindguards).

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the group that a person does not belong to. Members of the out-group are assumed to be highly homogenous.

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Excess optimism that increases risk-taking | Nothing could possibly go wrong

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Minimize and/or disregard the warning of others | They don’t know what they are talking about – don’t waste your time

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Belief that the group is looking out for the greater good | We are making the world a better place and know what we are doing

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Hold negative views of out-groups and have high in-group favoritism (They are not good people and we are better than them)

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Group members are pressured to conform and not express diverging ideas/opinions (We all agree and no one cares what you think, so keep quiet)

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The illusion of a united front makes members think that their ideas are incorrect/wrong. (Everyone agrees, so there is no point in sharing my ideas – I am probably wrong anyway)

Answer 52

The group appears unanimous because dissenting views are not considered. (Everyone agrees so there is nothing to discuss)

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Some group members want to protect the leader and the group by enforcing group cohesiveness and quashing dissenting ideas. (The group agrees and no one want to hear your nonsense, so stay quiet)

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b Seth is a student who doesn’t have many friends and is self-conscious. Explanation Conformity is most common when we wish to be liked or "fit in" with the group. Therefore Seth is the most likely to conform, as he is described as lacking many friends and being self-conscious.

Answer 55

75 % Explanation A whopping 75% of participants conformed at least once!

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d. China Explanation China has a culture that is the most collectivistic/least individualistic; people from highly collectivistic cultures are more likely to conform in the face of social pressure, even if the conforming action is incorrect.

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c Let’s do it—we never fail. Explanation An "illusion of invulnerability" relates to a false perception that a group is incapable of making mistakes or failure -- they are too "caught up" in believing in their own hype to think failure is possible.

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was a set of ethical guidelines that were put forth after the gruesome revelations of the mass genocide of millions of people and the horrific experiments done on unwilling men, women, and children.

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when people perceived authority figures are capable of getting high levels of cooperation in tasks designed to directly harm others or cause severe pain in another without the use of coercion.

Answer 60

65 % at 450 volts

Answer 61

prompt 1: Please continue, or Please go on Prompt 2: the experiment requires that you continue Prompt 3: it is absolutely essential that you continue Prompt 4: You have no other choice, you must go on. note that all verbal prompts were benign in nature and there was no outward or implied use of force to continue participation

Answer 62

as the distance decreased, so did obedience.

Answer 63

physically push the learner’s arm onto the shock plate. It is easier to knowingly harm others by inflicting pain and even death on them when it is done from a great distance

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65 Explanation 65% -- nearly two-thirds of participants -- obeyed the researcher and administered all shocks to the learner.

Answer 65

false Explanation False -- local psychiatrists and psychologists predicted that far fewer people (less than 1%) would obey the researcher in the study.

Answer 66

c Conformity dropped to a little less than 50% Explanation Obedience levels dropped to just below 50%. Researchers believed that being in a warehouse made the researcher seem like less of an authority figured compared to being on the campus of Yale University, leading to lower rates of conformity.

Answer 67

expected behaviors

Answer 68

In the early 1970s, a professor at Stanford University, Phillip Zimbardo, wanted to examine the power of situations in determining behavior. Young men were solicited to participate in a 14-day prison simulation. Zimbardo selected 24 participants who were mentally and physically healthy. Participants were told that they would be randomly assigned the role of either prisoner or guard; there were 9 prisons, 9 guards, and 3 alternates for each position. is a chilling reminder of how people can become so caught up in a social role that they engage in some unspeakable acts of cruelty.

Answer 69

Zimbardo addresses the relative strength of internal and external factors that influence behavior and the types of attributions made. Zimbardo asserts that the line between good and evil is not fixed and can become blurred.

Answer 70

The power of the situation can be so great that good people do bad things. Explanation The events in the Abu Ghraib prison are reminiscent of Zimbardo's prison study. Without strong guidelines and leadership, a situational role can lead people to do things they typically would not. The true irony of the situation is that this same logic may be applied to the reasons why the prisoners were in Abu Ghraib to begin with; extremism in all forms is usually the result of powerful social forces.

Answer 71

true Explanation TRUE -- Zimbardo believes that people are shaped powerfully by the situations in which they find themselves.

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d All of the above Explanation Zimbardo believes that people are shaped powerfully by the environments in which they find themselves -- all of these are potentially relevant components of the environment.

Answer 73

Explanation | FALSE -- This is a common misconception about the Prison Study.

Answer 74

A person in need is less likely to receive help as the number of people who ae present increases This is because the level of inaction of others increases as the number of bystanders increase, so help is more likely to occur with fewer bystanders present.

Answer 75

1 person 20

Answer 76

Results found that when participants were alone, 70% tried to help. When two participants were in the room helping dropped to 40%. Interestingly, when the two participants were friends, one of the friends helped 70% of the time. However, when participants were paired with an unconcerned and nonresponsive confederate, helping dropped to a mere 7%.

Answer 77

Latin American and Hispanic cultures, including the following countries: Brazil, Costa Rica, Mexico, and El Salvador

Answer 78

as "a range of amiable social qualities—to be friendly, nice, agreeable, and good-natured (i.e., a person who is fun to be with and pleasant to deal with; p. 555)." For those in these good-natured, social cultures, helping behaviors are consistent with the cultural script of simpatico.

Answer 79

the notion of diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance.

Answer 80

in the context of the bystander effect, as the number of people present increases, the relative level of accountability of each person decreases. when only one person is present, they assume 100 of the responsability

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an inverse relationship between the number of bystanders and whether help is received

Answer 82

when multiple people are present, the responsibility is spread out over all those present. No one person is held accountable.

Answer 83

as the number of bystanders increase.

Answer 84

the observation of group behaviors and the recognition of social cues

Answer 85

on our social environment and group behavior to guide our everyday actions even though we may not be fully aware of the power of social influence.

Answer 86

are consistent with the group

Answer 87

is a social psychological concept that occurs when people fail to act because they unwittingly rely on social cues from others to guide their behavior, without realizing that the referent others also face uncertainty. thus, no one is acting

Answer 88

he findings did not support previous bystander research; the man who appeared ill was helped 95% of the time and was helped more quickly than the “drunk” man. Additionally, when aid was offered to the “sick” man, the race of the respondent varied; however, when the “drunk” man was in need, helping behavior dropped dramatically to 50% and the race of the victim and respondent were typically the same. Regarding the gender of the passengers, the gender ratio was 60% male/40% female. However, when help was offered, 90% of respondents were male.

Answer 89

If you thought the man with no blood present would be helped more and more quickly than when blood was present, then you are correct. When you consider blood-borne pathogens and people’s squeamish response to the sight of blood, a lack of action makes sense. Vaillancourt et al. (2008) found in a meta-analysis that people, whether CPR certified or not, are less likely to give CPR when there is blood, vomit, body odor, or the smell of alcohol, which is consistent with the findings of Piliavin and colleagues

Answer 90

* Environment (urban vs. rural) * Sense of common fate (e.g., subway car) * Perceive help is needed * Risk to self (e.g., blood present) * Personal factors – in hurry, ability to help

Answer 91

(1) the likelihood of getting help decreases significantly when the situation is perceived as dangerous relative to not dangerous; (2) less help is given when a perpetrator is present in comparison to being absent; and (3) helping behavior decreases when physical actions are required in relation to non-physical actions.

Answer 92

The key to understanding diffusion of responsibility is to recognize that when multiple people are present, the responsibility is spread out over all those present. Diffusion of responsibility increases as the number of bystanders increase.

Answer 93

as the responsibility is spread to all who hear the cries for help, which can reduce helping behavior. Ideally, you would identify one person who could swim and start the rescue. However, in such a dire situation, you would also want to assign other roles to specific people (identify one person to call 911 and get the paramedics).

Answer 94

increased because there is a higher probability that you know the person in need. In large urban areas, the relative anonymity of those around us increases, which subsequently decreases helping behavior.

Answer 95

Explanation The bystander effect is illustrated; diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance contribute to the bystander effect.

Answer 96

1 Explanation One bystander is the most likely to feel responsible, and is less likely to be susceptible to pluralistic ignorance.

Answer 97

Pluralistic ignorance Pluralistic ignorance best describes the above situation, as it is related to how people look to others to act when unsure of what to do -- but others may also be unsure of what to do. The other answers are all relevant, but not the best possible answer.

Answer 98

c Point directly at someone and ask that person for help Explanation Pointing at someone directly and asking them for help is the option that is most likely to reduce the occurrence of pluralistic ignorance and diffusion of responsibility.

Answer 99

``` •Charismatic leader •Isolation and fear– moved to remote area in South America •Jones had psychological & physical control •Mass suicide of 900 members ```

Answer 100

a charismatic leader, and members of the group often use “love-bombing,” where existing followers lure recruits and shower them with attention, affection, and interest. Converts are greeted with acceptance and soon find themselves around only other people affiliated with the cult. The new member may not realize some of the tactics used to isolate them from outsiders. For example, if the group is going to an event, members all get on the “church” bus and go together. Over time and through a series of what appear to be innocuous social events, leaders exert their influence and power over followers.

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young, lonely, uneducated, and gullible.

Answer 102

conformity, strict obedience and other psychologicl concepts

Answer 103

the more time one remains in an interpersonal relationship or as a member of a group, despite experiencing increasingly negative outcomes, the more difficult it is to leave the relationship

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While acting as new recruits, these researchers carefully documented and analyzed the actions of the cult leaders and members; this was a unique opportunity to gather first-hand accounts of the inner workings of a cult as newcomers and as scientists, a fact that was carefully concealed.

Answer 105

c They remained with the cult, even more committed now that they had all saved the world. Explanation Correct -- read on to learn about cognitive dissonance theory and how we can explain this seemingly strange finding.

Answer 106

b Henry is 22; he failed out of college and has never dated anyone and his only “friends” are people he talks to at work. Explanation Vulnerable, socially-isolated individuals tend to be the most susceptible to joining cults, as they are often very responsive to the positive validation that cults give to their members.

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TRUE -- Leaders of cults are typically seen to be perfect or beyond reproach, and very adept with social skills.

Answer 108

represent variations in thoughts , ideas and opinions We are born with no pre-set ideas; all attitudes are learned and are shaped by personal experience, direct instruction from others, and the ideas we observe in others, which may be positive, negative, or neutral.

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cognitive, affective, and behavioral manifestations

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addresses the thoughts one may have about someone or something

Answer 111

includes one’s feelings about the attitude in question.

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addresses the actions taken

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was designed to quantify feelings and opinions about sensitive issues that would be difficult to self-report accurately.

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o choose one of the attitudes that are listed (e.g., feelings about overweight/obese people) and take it today and a few days from now. Note where your final score fell and see if you get the same score days later. That would be a measure of the test-retest reliability of the measure.

Answer 115

1. behavioral 2. cognitive 3. affective Explanation Being terrified is an emotional reaction, and is therefore an affective component. Going to the movies is an action, and therefore a behavioral component. Believing that a Range Rover is a very safe vehicle is a thought, and therefore a cognitive component.

Answer 116

members did not defect and move on with their lives

Answer 117

Festinger developed the cognitive dissonance theory to explain what happens when people's attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent.

Answer 118

when attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent, a state of unease is felt, which the individual is then motivated to reduce. members of the doomsday cult experienced when the prophecy failed. Dissonance levels were high when you consider that followers had surrendered all their worldly possessions, which was predicated on the belief that the world was ending. After joining the cult, members typically severed ties to the outside world, including relationships with family, friends, and others who were not cult members.

Answer 119

when there are large discrepancies between one’s attitudes and behaviors. The experience of cognitive dissonance causes discomfort, particularly when the incongruent attitudes or behaviors are important to the individual; large disparities between attitudes and actions cause significant internal distress. When there are strong feelings of cognitive dissonance, the individual is highly motivated to reduce the level of incongruence.

Answer 120

1) changing the attitude, (2) changing the behavior, (3) distorting attitude(s), or (4) distorting perceived behavior(s).

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why people do not practice what they preach.

Answer 122

Explanation Josef's decision to eat a bowl of beef stew is both (1) intentional and (2) conflicts with the cognitive component of his veganism. In this case, his behavior conflicts with the cognitive component of his attitude. (If he enjoyed the stew, his affective component would also be in conflict with the cognitive component of his attitude.)

Answer 123

a Change your attitude b Change your behavior Explanation If we consider cognitive dissonance as a mis-alignment of attitudinal components, the only way to reduce it is to change our belief (the cognitive component of our attitude) or to change our behavior.

Answer 124

d Cognitive dissonance theory Explanation Clive's actions (abandoning his family and giving away his possessions) are in conflict with the belief that the cult leader could be mistaken. Cognitive dissonance results from this, and it is far easier to dismiss the idea that the leader is wrong than it is to change your entire way of life.

Answer 125

are attitudes and opinions about people based on the group they are affiliated with. Although some people share similar traits, the problem with stereotyping others is that we assume that group members share identical traits.

Answer 126

on the group affiliation of the perceiver. For example, members of different fraternities or sororities consider their own fraternity or sorority to be composed of a diverse/heterogeneous group of people. However, when evaluating other fraternities and sororities, there is an assumption of homogeneity.

Answer 127

members that are similar

Answer 128

occurs when a person or group experiences significant fear of confirming negative expectations about one's own social group, which ultimately adversely affects performance. When placed in situations where an individual is afraid that their performance will be consistent with the prevailing stereotype, the result is known as the stereotype threat

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learned, negative attitudes or opinions that a person has towards certain groups who share similar characteristics.

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racism, bigotry gender, ethnicity, religion, country of origin, skin color, sexual preference, body size, and a host of other characteristics.

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non!! prejudiced attitudes are learned Initially, parents and caregivers have a substantial effect on learning to hate others and the target of that hate. The target of prejudice is learned from parents, peers, first-hand experience, and vicarious conditioning.

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prejudice relates to attitudes while discrimination is related to behavior

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high levels of prejudice and target discrimination at other minorities

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scapegoat the potential result is a group channeling their rage at another minority group with even less power. The premise of scapegoat theory is that people can feel more empowered when they exert power over others who have less power than themselves.

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intergroup conflict that occurs when 2 or more groups are competing over real or perceived scarce resources( ex: jobs, money, power, social status). This often leads to feelings of prejudice, extreme dislike, and malice towards the competing groups.

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scapegoat realistic conflict theory

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based on the idea that there are few desirable jobs available, so the competition for these limited resources creates conflict.

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is for people of equal status to work toward a common goal

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the group that a person belongs to; is perceived to be superior to other groups.

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refers to the need for individuals or groups to work together toward a common goal Thus, the groups needed to work together toward a common goal. For example, the water line was disrupted, and the groups needed to work together to restore the water supply.

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similarity and proximity. Similarity refers to the fact that we tend to like others who share similar ideologies and interests to us. Although most have heard the adage “opposites attract,” the flip side of that is "similarity breeds content." Opposites may attract, but in lasting relationships, those who are “opposite” have complementary characteristics so that the strengths and weaknesses of each person complement the other. For example, if one person in the relationship is disorganized and tends to forget to pay bills on time, then it would be advantageous for the other partner to be highly organized.

Answer 142

wanted to determine what attribute participants used to determine whether they wanted to see their blind date again. Walster found that 100% of those on a blind date chose to go on a second date based solely on physical attractiveness.

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physical nearness. In the context of liking others, we are more likely to meet and befriend those who live close to us. For example, as a college freshman, you may have initially developed friendships with other students in your hall or in your dorm. Additionally, you may befriend other classmates who sit near you in class. For students taking classes about a mutually interesting topic, both proximity and similarity can influence liking. We also like people who like us. Additionally, the more time and experience we have with another person can also increase our liking, a phenomenon known as the mere exposure effect

Answer 144

the more time and experience that we have to someone is associated with an increased linking of that person.

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positive personality traits beauty is strongly assumed to be associated with positive characteristics.

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b mere exposure Explanation The mere exposure effect is precisely this -- interacting with (being exposed to) a person more often tends to lead to liking that person more often.

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a Being of equal status b Working toward a common goal Explanation Being of equal status makes it less likely that one of the groups can be effectively used as a scapegoat, while working toward a common goal yields mutual interdependence.

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stereotype 1 prejudice 2 discrimination 3

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yes, sports but sometimes is also undesirable

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instrumental agression hostile agression

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violent behavior is purposeful and is a means to achieve some goal. For example, when playing football, players must tackle and act aggressively to move the ball down the field and score. Although there is no intent to cause serious harm to another, the use of physical force is necessary to obtain the desired result.

Answer 152

are for the sole purpose of inflicting harm on another living creature (human or animal). The perpetrator of such senseless acts of violence may react with depraved indifference and lack remorse. The intent of hostile aggression is to do harm to another person, which can lead to serious injury or even death of the victim as well as the possible incarceration of the perpetrator.

Answer 153

Biological models explain differences in aggression levels in humans and animals as a function of genetics, hormones, and brain physiology. The heritability of aggression is estimated to be approximately .6, meaning that 60% of the variability in levels of aggression are attributed to genetics.

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physical and verbal

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verbally aggressive physcally aggressive of the hormone testosterone

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amygdala Neural stimulation of the amygdala in animals results in violent outbursts, while neural inhibition results in docile behavior, even in animals prone to violence.

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biological factors environemetal factors

Answer 158

1. behavior modeling 2. Social Learning Exposure to violent models in person or on film resulted in high levels of imitation-based aggression, where many of the behaviors were nearly exact replications of the adult model. Modeling violent acts is heightened when the model is reinforced for their actions rather than punished. Consistent with previous research on gender differences in aggression, boys not only like the violent portrayal more than girls, but the degree of violence displayed by boys also vastly exceeded that displayed by girls in all conditions, including affective ratings of the aggressive vignette. Children exposed to either real-life or filmed segments of children or adults engaging in violent behavior were more likely to subsequently exhibit high levels of imitation aggression and non-imitation aggression than children exposed to non-violent models and control groups

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learning to complete a task by simply copying the behaviour of another person

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learning behaviors and skills by watching others engage in those behaviors

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punished A variety of simulations revealed that children were more likely to model a villain’s behavior when that villain was victorious. Thus, although children imitated the aggressive actions of the victorious villain, they did not positively identify with the immoral beliefs and characteristics of the character.

Answer 162

the violent portrayal more than girls, but the degree of violence displayed by boys also vastly exceeded that displayed by girls in all conditions, including affective ratings of the aggressive vignette.

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c Watching violence within your community increases aggression. Explanation Watching violence within your community increases aggression, which describes a role for social interaction in the likelihood of aggressive behavior.

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a Violent behavior is quickly learned by watching aggressive models who are rewarded. Explanation Albert Bandura's theory related to how people learn to be aggressive from others; watching a model be rewarded for aggressive behavior is the best example of this.

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b. Explanation Stuart is most likely to be aggressive because he is watching someone else be aggressive and be rewarded for it.

Answer 166

TRUE -- Gender differences in aggression are most pronounced in terms of the type of aggression (verbal or physical).

Answer 167

b instrumental Explanation Instrumental aggression is when aggression is used as a tool to accomplish a goal.

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a hostile Explanation Hostile aggression is when aggressive acts are done with the sole goal of harming another person or animal -- that is what Simon is exhibiting in this story.

Answer 169

are behaviors that are done to benefit another without the expectation of anything in return. This concept includes people who volunteer their time and resources to help others because they want to help, which excludes mandatory community service. Behaving altruistically involves putting the needs of others over your own where there is no personal gain. Acts of altruism are unlike any behavior discussed in this chapter thus far.

Answer 170

More than a century ago, Kropotkin (1902) watched the behavior of two monkeys who were in adjoining cages, where one had food and the other had nothing. What was remarkable was that the chimpanzee who had the food appeared to take stock of his food before voluntarily passing food to the chimp in the adjoining cage. The point of hesitation prior to sharing was believed to mark a moment of decision making, which involves a higher-order process rather than mere instinct.

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enganging in what appears to be prosocial behaviors with expectation of getting something in return. this idea applied to humans as well as primates and asserted that these behaviors have evolved over time. The concept of reciprocal altruism implies that there is an expectation of some form of returned gesture that would require long-term scorekeeping; these explanations deviate from the idea of pure altruism that is based on selfless acts of kindness.

Answer 172

if the audience was previously unaware of the information. However, if the acts of altruism are already known, then the individual is perceived as bragging, which effectively negates the purpose of altruism. Seeking admiration and the appearance of generosity are not inherently altruistic reasons, because then the purpose of engaging in prosocial behaviors is for personal gain, such as being perceived in a positive light.

Answer 173

watched the behavior of two monkeys who were in adjoining cages, where one had food and the other had nothing. What was remarkable was that the chimpanzee who had the food appeared to take stock of his food before voluntarily passing food to the chimp in the adjoining cage. Kropotkin asserted that the primate's behavior was a form of cooperation with a non-relative. The point of hesitation prior to sharing was believed to mark a moment of decision-making, which involves a higher-order process rather than mere instinct.

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that there is an expectation of some form of returned gesture that would require long-term scorekeeping; these explanations deviate from the pure idea of altruism that is based on selfless acts of kindness.

Answer 175

When the gender of the individual matches the identified gender role (e.g., women score high on femininity and low on masculinity; men who score high on masculinity and low on femininity), these persons are considered to be sex-typed

Answer 176

When considering gender roles, persons who endorse high levels of both traditionally feminine characteristics (e.g., compassionate, loves children) and traditionally masculine characteristics (e.g., leader, independent) are considered to be androgynous.

Answer 177

more positively overall and rated as more attractive by heterosexual members of the opposite gender

Answer 178

b,d,e Explanation Notice that each of the incorrect answers involve receiving a reward (or the possibility of a reward) in return for a "charitable" act.

Answer 179

c. Explanation Women who are sex-typed (primarily endorse feminine gender roles) are the most likely to act altruistically automatically and intuitively.

Answer 180

a give and take between two (or more) people.

Answer 181

the idea that if others help us, then we should provide something in return. If one person is constantly compromising and the other person is unwilling to make any sacrifices, then the inequity is likely to damage that relationship.

Answer 182

the foot-in-the-door technique, the door-in-the-face technique lowballing

Answer 183

the initial request made, the use of reciprocity or other methods of compliance, and the ultimate intended outcome.

Answer 184

With Foot-in-the-Door, the initial request is small, so people willingly participate. In the week or so following, you make another request, but this one is large and not that appealing. However, a significant number will comply because they begin to perceive themselves as responsible citizens who are committed to helping others. This technique works best when the first request makes the targets feel good about themselves as people.

Answer 185

Door-in-the-face is another method that relies on the reciprocity norm. When using door-in-the-face, the initial request is large and met with rejection, so a smaller request is made and then accepted. This method is effective because the requester compromised from the initial request, and this gesture is then reciprocated by the target.

Answer 186

Lowballing is a technique most commonly associated with car salesmen. The initial offer seems great and you are committed to the purchase, and then the deal is not as good. There are added fees and other charges that sour the deal; however, the salesperson is relying on the customer's commitment to owning the vehicle in question. The salesperson also uses the reciprocity norm. There are numerous means of triggering the feeling of indebtedness and the need for reciprocity. Customers are provided with free beverages and snacks. Lowballing rests on the assumption that you want the vehicle, so much so that you will still purchase it even after the added fees have changed the price.

Answer 187

1. cognitive dissonance 2. altruism 3. cognitive dissonance 4. altruism

Answer 188

foot-in-the-door

Answer 189

lowballing