Chapter 12, cours 3 midterm 2 Flashcards
Personality psychology is a subfield of psychology that attempts to account for individual differences in
thinking, feeling, and behaving at various levels of analysis that range from the biological level (e.g., heredity) to the group level (e.g., cultural differences).
personality can be defined as
as an enduring set of internally based characteristics that produce uniqueness and consistency in the expressions of a person’s thoughts and behaviors, along with an explanation to account for these characteristics.
personality traits definition
internally-based characteristics that make up one’s personality.
Individual differences in personality reflect the types of and degree to which they possess certain traits.
To help you think about what personality is, we will look at three distinct elements of personality:
uniqueness, consistency, and explanation
what is uniqueness? link with twins too
Personality traits are specific to each person
even among monozygotic twins, each twin has unique personality traits.
Personality explains how the expression of each individual’s thoughts and behavior is different.
what is consistency?
How an individual behaves over time in similar situations
Personality describes how the behavior of the individual is consistent over time and across situations.
The focus of these perspectives on personality range from
emotional processes (e.g., anxiety and joy) to mental processes (e.g., beliefs and expectations) to biological processes (e.g., genetics and hormones)
what is processes of personality?
Personality accounts for the internal operations producing the unique and consistent expression of an individual’s thoughts and behavior.
Which of the following is NOT a critical element of defining personality?
a
How a person behaves consistently across time and situations
b
How a person is unique and different from others
c
How a person’s behavior can be explained (or accounted for)
d
How a person’s behavior is affected by social and cultural norms
d
How a person’s behavior is affected by social and cultural norms
Explanation
Personality is influenced by genetics and culture, but we don’t need to identify all the genetic and social influences on behavior to define personality. Personality is also more comprehensive than one type of behavior.
what is the psychodynamic perspectives of personality?
the Freudan notion that perosnality is a function of internal processes and conflicts over which individuals have little or no conscious awareness or personal control
the psychodynamic perspective is associate with who?
Sigmund Freud
Others who proposed their own psychodynamic perspectives in reaction to Freud’s perspective include
Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney
Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney placed greater emphasis on …wich concept to explain personality?
on social relationships and conscious awareness as the basis for understanding the expression of personality.
selon Freud, there are 3 regions of the Mind:
Conscious Mind
Preconscious Mind
Unconscious Mind
the conscious mind explain it:
is limited to only those mental activities the individual is consciously aware of at any given moment
connects with conscious awareness. we are aware of our thoughts and feelings at the moment
explain the preconscious mind
contains mental information that the individual may not be thinking about at any given moment but can easily access when needed, as well as remove from awareness when no longer needed.
connects with conscious and unconscious minds. Contains information accesible to the conscious mind when needed.
explain the unconscious mind:
the largest and most influential part of the mind, according to freud. houses any thoughts or impulses that are considered too threating to be in one’s conscious mind.
it is an unlimited storage facility containing the thoughts, feelings, memories, needs, desires, wishes, and past experiences deemed too threatening to appear at the conscious level of awareness.
True or False
According to Freud, to understand personality it is necessary to expose and gain access to the content of the unconscious mind.
true
according to Freud, how can we access the unconscious mind?
free association(word vomit)
dream analysis(the most important technique for hime)
what is free association?
required the individual to say whatever came to their mind without considering how meaningless or threatening it might seem
what is the manigest content?
is what the dreamer remembers, it is the disguised content- without any interpretation
what is the latent content?
is the expression of the unconscious mind and a reflection of a person’s true feelings, needs, and desires.
what are the parts of a dream analysis?
the manifest content
the latent content
what are the 3 structural components of the mind?
Id
Ego
Superego
explain the Id
the core component of personality
located completely in the unconscious mind
it was present at birth and served as the primary driver of personality
it is the pleasure principle
takes care of basic human needs for survival and self-preservation (e.g., eating, drinking) in addition to satisfying primal urges, such as sexual impulses (Eros) and unrestrained aggression (Thanatos).
Freud proposed that the id, without any direct contact with the external world or conscious awareness, operates on the
pleasure principle
what is the pleasure principle?
the driving force of the Id, where the focus is on the fulfilment of all sexual urges and aggressive impulses
where do you find Eros and Thanatos and explain them#
in the Id(unconscious mind)
Eros: unconscious primal urges such sexual impulses
Thanatos: unrestrained aggression
As the desire to fulfill sexual and aggressive impulses builds, the level of psychic tension mounts as the id’s impulses are restrained by the confines of reality.
explain the ego:
the component of the mind that can subdue the id’s sexual and aggressive impulses to wait for the “right time and right place.”
Develops out of Id and subdues its impulses
Go-between for id and reality
reality principle
Toward the end of the first year and at the beginning of the second year of life, the ego develops out of the id and operates across all three levels of consciousness
The principal purpose of the ego is to
is to meet the needs of the id within the constraints of the real world.
the id operates on which principle and the Ego too?
the id operates on pleasure principle
the ego operates on reality principle
what is reality principle:
The world in which the ego operates where impulses from the unconscious and id are rejected in their natural form and are expressed in socially acceptable ways
The ego develops a strategy that will make it possible to meet these instinctual needs and desires in a manner that will satisfy the unconscious demands of the id but also will not threaten the ego’s sense of self within the context of reality at the conscious level.
The ego arbitrates between
reality, the unconscious impulses of the id, and the moral limits of the superego, which represents one’s sense of right and wrong.
what is the superego?
One’s moral compass of what is right and what is wrong; this is learned from parents, teachers, societies, official laws, religious beliefs, personal moral code
The sense of morality characteristic of the superego is regulated by
the ego ideal and the conscience
For example, the ego ideal creates a sense of pride when the individual exhibits thoughts and behaviors consistent with a personal moral code (e.g., telling the truth and obeying societal conventions). On the other hand, the conscience creates a sense of shame, disapproval, anxiety, or guilt when the individual exhibits thoughts and behaviors that violate the personal moral code(stealing lying)
according to freud, The operation of an emotionally healthy personality is a reflection of a balanced expression of
the id, the ego, and superego.
According to Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective, the uniqueness in the expression of personality reflects how
the ego serves to mediate between the demands and desires of the id and the moral constraints of the superego in a consistent manner across time (e.g., during adolescence compared to adulthood) and in different situations (e.g., acquiring money to purchase a video game versus a car).
Freud hypothesized that criminal behavior was the result of a
a strong id and a weak superego.
Freud proposed that feelings of anxiety serve as a warning sign of possible danger to
th ego
what is reality anxiety?
a form of anxiety that serves as a warning sign for real danger
it informs the ego of real danger(car drifting into your lane)
what is moral anxiety?
notifies the superego that the ego is considering violating a moral code (e.g., you want to cheat on a test)
what is the neurotic anxiety?
warns the ego of the threatening expression of id impulses at the level of conscious awareness (e.g., you want to scream out loud while sitting in a boring class).
To mask feelings of anxiety and disguise the source of the tension, as well as to keep them from being expressed (e.g., screaming out loud), individuals unconsciously employ a variety of
defense mechanisms
what are defense mechanisms?
ways to avert the expression of id impulses without conscious awareness
The principal defense mechanism Freud identified is and explain it?
repression
which is characterized by the individual’s ego simply removing (e.g., ignoring, trying to forget) the threatening impulse from conscious awareness.
describe repression and give an example
Description
Forcing distressing or unacceptable memories, thoughts, and feelings into the unconscious.
A victim of sexual assault during childhood unable to recall the details in adulthood.
describe reaction formation and give an example
Unacceptable thoughts and desires in the unconscious are expressed as their opposite in consciousness.
Speaking out against homosexual behavioral while fantasizing about having sex with same-sex individuals.
describe projection and give an example
Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, impulses, and motives to others.
Easing one’s guilt about cheating on a test by believing others are also cheating.
describe regression and give an example
Reacting to a threatening situation with a response characteristic of an earlier stage of development.
“Acting like a baby” by throwing a temper tantrum when co-workers do not agree with you.
describe sublimation and give an example
Transforming inappropriate impulses and motives into socially acceptable and even valuable expressions.
Developing a career as a scientist studying deviant sexual behavior to satisfy one’s own atypical sexual desires.
describe denial and give an example
A conscious refusal to perceive and believe painful facts or situations exist.
After a series of job losses and failed relationships, an alcoholic will not admit to having a drinking problem.
describe rationalization and give an example
Creating an acceptable and local explanation to replace a true but threating cause of behavior.
Instead of admitting to being a thief, an employee justifies stealing supplies from work as compensation for what is perceived as an unfair salary.
describe displacement and give an example
Shifting the expression of an unwanted impulse from a threating person to a less threatening one.
Instead of expressing his anger at his boss for humiliating him in a meeting, an office manager yells at his child when arriving home.
Homework: Match the example on the left with the defense mechanism on the right.
- To deal with his sexual desires¸an individual organizes a protest rally against the opening of an adult bookstore in the community.
- A shopper makes a mess by throwing the merchandise on the floor and refusing to move out of line when told by the salesclerk that a sales receipt is required to exchange a purchase.
- Although she is angry at her professor for assigning her a low grade on a quiz¸ the student doesn’t express the anger towards her professor and instead yells at her little brother for making too much noise playing his video games when she arrives home.
- Reaction Formation
- Regression
- Displacement
Explanation
Reaction formation occurs when a person has sexual desires (which the culture doesn’t condone) and wants to be a patron of the adult bookstore but outwardly protests the adult bookstore to be consistent with the more modest cultural message. Displacement occurs when a student receives a low grade, becomes upset with the professor (one person) and takes out her anger on her brother (another person) in a different situation. Regression occurs when an adult shopper is confronted with a threatening situation (can’t exchange purchase without a receipt) and the shopper throws merchandise on the floor as a child would.
David forgets that he has a term paper in his psychology class until the night before it is due. Although he forgot about it until now, the information about the term paper was stored in the ______________ region of his mind.
a
retroconscious
b
private self-conscious
c
unconscious
d
preconscious
e
metaconscious
d. preconscious
The term paper due date was forgotten until the deadline became relevant and was easily recalled, which happens in the preconscious mind.
Sue decides that she will deal with her shyness by joining a poetry reading group instead of just sitting at home and daydreaming of meeting someone. Her decision is based on the ______________ principle as mediated by her ego.
a
mind-body
b
reality
c
ego ideal
d
primary process
e
reactive
b. reality
The reality principle of the ego is that the id can satisfy its needs but the way in which these needs are satisfied is also consistent with the true sense of self that the ego has. The sense of self comes from interacting with the conscious real world.
The ego can utilize ______________ to help deal with the threatening influences of neurotic anxiety.
a
latent-meaning reactions
b
covert mechanisms
c
defense mechanisms
d
mental representation
c. defense mechanisms
Explanation
There are many defense mechanisms that the ego can employ unconsciously to prevent people from experiencing anxiety about the threatening situation. Himmet probably did not enjoy studying because of his anxiety and instead engaged in those activities that did bring him joy–playing video games and socializing with friends. Himmet’s neurotic anxiety was a warning that he probably tried to suppress.
according to freud, the development of personality is based on 5 psychosexual stages:
which reflects
oral stage
anal stage
phalic stage
latency period
genital stage
according to freud, the development of personality is based on 5 psychosexual stages:
which reflects
oral stage
anal stage
phalic stage
latency period
genital stage
reflects the conflict between the expression of the id’s desire to seek immediate pleasure and society’s demands to restrict it. Each stage is associated with a major biological function corresponding to a specific erogenous zone (a region of the body that serves as the source of enjoyment).
the strenghts of the psychoanalytic perspective of Freud
- Comprehensive and unifying perspective of personality
- Stimulated the thinking of other perspectives of personality
- Considerable influence to disciplines inside and outside of psychology
the limitations of psychoanalytical perspective of Freud
- Perspective based on biased sample of clinical observations
- Perspective based on a set of loose and ambiguous terms and concepts that are difficult to verify objectively
- Problematic view of the development and expression of the female personality
In addition, although contemporary research has provided some evidence to support Freud’s ideas of defense mechanisms, they seem to operate more at
at the conscious level of awareness as a deliberate strategy to protect our self-image than as an unconscious response to weaken threatening impulses
Match the psychosexual stage on the left with the life lesson on the right.
- Willingness to delay gratification
- There is a right time and a right place
- Learn to go along to get along with those more powerful than you
- It is good to know you are not alone
- To get pleasure¸ you must give pleasure
- Oral stage
- Anal stage
- Phallic stage
- Latency period
- Genital stage
The process of identification with the same-sex parent is associated with the acquisition and understanding of sex-role behavioral patterns during the ______________ stage of psychosexual development.
a
phallic
b
anal
c
oral
d
latency
e
genital
a. phalic
Explanation
In the phallic stage, boys are said to be in competition with their fathers for their mother’s affection because Oedipus married his mother Jocasta, whom he did not know was his mother. The Electra complex doesn’t follow her Greek tragedy, but girls are said to be in competition with their mothers for their father’s affection.
the anal stage:
Freud’s pychosexual period during which a child learns to control his bodily excretions
the phalic stage
Freud’s third stage of development, when the penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure
the latency period
the fourth psychosexual stage, in which the primary focus is on the further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal, and athletic skills
the genital stage
Freud’s last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence).
the neo-freudian perspectives represent:
represent explanations of personality based on reactions to and extensions of Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective. The basis of each of these viewpoints reflects a perceived limitation of some aspect of Freud’s ideas and a desire to correct that shortcoming.
Jung proposed the idea of :
collective unconscious
what is collective unconscious?
interconnected through past experiences to other individuals across generations and locations around the world. Contained in this region of the mind was a universal set of common thoughts, feelings, behaviors, beliefs, rituals, emotions, experiences, images, and symbols inherited from all of those who came before us over time, including animals.
Examples of such universal knowledge and tendencies include a fear of the unknown, the search for novelty, a desire for social order, and the need for emotional contact with others.
Jung believed that all of this inherited universal knowledge was stored in the collective unconscious in the form of
archaetypes
what are archaetypes:
Archetypes are universal thought patterns and behavior rituals triggered by specific situations, symbols, and images representing certain people, ideas, or beliefs. When expressed, these archetypes provide a universal response that is adaptive over time and across situations.
what is the persona? by Jung
The persona was the tendency for people to develop a certain pattern of behavior when in public to get along with others, similar to Freud’s superego
what is the shadow, by Jung?
he shadow represents the dark and more primitive side of personality, similar to Freud’s id.
what is the self, by jung?
the most important archetype, serves to unite all other aspects of the individual’s personality, much like Freud’s ego.
what are the 7 archaetypes given by Jung?
sage
rebel
hero
Jester/ Trickster
Caregiver/mother
Monster
The shadow of the Doppelganger
explain the sage
A wise or holy figure, a guardian of special knowledge
explain the rebel:
Transgressor, shows a general disregard for the rules/authority
explain the hero
A path from the ego to a new identity, the self
explain the jester
Intellect, secret knowledge, nothing is what it seems, chaos, moral ambiguity
explain the caregiver:
Love, home, safety, protection, nurturing
explain monster
Evil, Destruction, forces actively working against the hero
explain the The Shadow of the Doppelganger
Evil twin, mirror image, the part of the self that is kept hidden
For Jung, the operational explanation of personality involves…. lien after with the uniqueness and the consistency
the expression of archetypes at the level of conscious awareness. The uniqueness of the individual is based on the specific way each person chooses to express these archetypes, depending on the time and place in which they live. The consistency of an individual’s behavior is based on the extent to which certain archetypes are expressed in a similar manner over time and across situations.
Alfred Adler was an early supporter of Freud but eventually began to disagree with him on some of his most important ideas, including
the importance of unconscious sexual needs, the meaning of dreams, and the role of the ego
what concepts proposed Alfred Adler?
striving for superiority
principle of social interest
what is striving for superiority?
he proposed that at a conscious level, individuals are motivated by efforts to achieve excellence and improvements over for our past selves and to act in ways to benefit
what is striving for superiority?
he proposed that at a conscious level, individuals are motivated by efforts to achieve excellence and improvements over for our past selves and to act in ways to benefit
Striving for superiority does not mean that we strive to be superior or better than others. Instead, it means trying to become a better person in an effort to overcome real or imagined feelings of inferiority developed earlier in life through interactions with parents, siblings, and peers.
It was Adler’s belief that striving for superiority should be guided by the principle of
social interest
the goal of becoming a better person should be to make society better as you make yourself a better person. For example, a high school science teacher volunteers at the local science museum on the weekends to learn more about science and be a better teacher for her students while also helping to keep the museum open on the weekends so more community members can visit to better their knowledge and interest in science in their own efforts toward striving for superiority.
For Adler, the uniqueness of the individual is based on… and the consistency is based on …..
on the selection of specific strategies used when striving for superiority.
The consistency of behavior is based on the extent to which the specific strategies used are selected in a similar manner over time and across situations.
what is social security? by Karen Horney and what if they are unloved, they develop what?
a sense of feeling safe and loved in our relationships with others. When individuals feel unsafe, unloved, and powerless in their relationships, they develop feelings of basic anxiety
Feelings of basic hostility begin to emerge along with
the belief that significant others are not helping to create a secure environment.
Horney (1945) identified three basic strategies individuals use to reduce feelings of basic anxiety and establish a sense of safety
- Moving toward people
- Moving against people
- Moving away from people
explain moving toward people and give example
in which the individual does and says certain things in the hopes that others will like and take care of them. For example, teenagers may succumb to peer pressure and conform to the beliefs and behaviors of others in an effort to be accepted and to avoid being teased and ridiculed.
explain and give example of moving away from people
in which the individual withdraws emotionally in the hopes that others will not be able to harm them. As an example of this strategy, a shy man stays at home and plays video games to avoid being rejected when he tries to talk to individuals he finds attractive at parties.
explain moving against people and give example
in which the individual tries to harm others first in the hopes of preventing others from considering doing harm to them. For example, a woman ends a series of romantic relationships early to avoid having her heart broken. Individuals with a healthy personality will employ a combination of all three of these strategies, depending on the circumstances, whereas individuals with an unhealthy personality will focus on a single strategy in all situations that involve interpersonal relationships.
For Horney, the operational process serving as the principal motivating source for the expression of personality involves
the consistency, the uniqueness
involves attempting to reduce feelings of basic anxiety and feelings of insecurity. The uniqueness of the individual is based on the specific combination of the three strategies used by the person seeking social security, and the consistency of behavior is based on the extent to which these three strategies are used in a similar manner over time and across situations.
strengths of the neo-freudian perspectives
- Jung’s expanded emphasis on influence of the importance o of the unconscious mind
- Adler and Horney’s expanded emphasis on the importance of social relationships in the expression of personality
what are the limitations
- These perspectives are based on vague concepts that are difficult to measure objectively
- These perspectives are based on biased samples of clinical observations
An anthropologist is looking at the social behavior of ancient civilizations in both China and South America. He finds evidence that there is a tendency for groups of individuals from these two different parts of the world to prefer a social organization based on physical strength using combat skills whereas others prefer a social organization based on a division of labor. The tendency of these civilizations to seek a form of organization illustrates the shared wisdom of the ages stored in which of the following?
a
Preconscious complexes
b
The collective unconscious
c
Transpersonal mental blocks
d
Eclectic preconscious ego structures
b. collective unconscious
Explanation
Jung’s collective unconscious is a shared repository in which knowledge can be stored. He believed that this collective unconscious was interconnected through past experiences to other individuals across generations and geographical locations.
Jerry expresses his passion for auto racing by entering all of the local races he can. He has recently started entering more competitive races in other states and teaching classes on being a race car driver in an attempt to test the limits of his driving ability. Adler would say that Jerry is engaged in the process of ____________.
a
overcompensating
b
expressing his superiority complex
c
expressing his persona, the archetype of actors
d
striving for superiority
e
developing his feeling function
Explanation
Jerry isn’t trying to be better than other people, and he isn’t a poor driver. He wants to know how good he is at driving and to improve.
Dale’s classmates laugh at and tease him about his poor grades, but he still treats them to meals when they are hanging out because he is new to campus and wants desperately to make some friends. Dale is demonstrating what Horney called _________.
a
moving toward people
b
moving against people
c
moving away from people
d
moving with people
a. moving toward people
a
moving toward people
b
moving against people
c
moving away from people
d
moving with people
In direct contrast to the rather pessimistic views of the psychodynamic perspective, the humanistic perspectives of personality are based on
on the underlying assumption that the expression of personality is motivated by the internal desire for self-improvement and self-enhancement, which operates at the conscious level of awareness. Humanism focuses on the individual’s perspective and addresses the uniqueness of each person.
Abraham Maslow (1971) considered the motivational core of personality to be the desire for individuals to seek a state of
self-actualization—the tendency to strive for self-improvement and self-enhancement to ultimately achieve one’s fullest potential.
who proposed the hierarchy of needs? and explain it
Maslow
o conceptualize the process of need fulfillment, where individuals must meet their basic biological needs before proceeding to higher-order needs (see Figure 12.9). Maslow proposed that when individuals meet the demands of one category in a consistent and satisfactory manner, efforts are made to begin to meet the needs of other categories
what are the 5 levels of the hierarchy of needs?
Physiological
Safety
Love/belonging
Esteem
Self-atualization
maintain a job to be able to purchase groceries
is waht according to maslow?
physiological needs
creating a routine after dinner to help relax is what according to maslow?
safety needs
joining a community group to help the homeless is what accroding to maslow?
joining a community group to help the homeless
running for a seat on the local schoolboard is what accroding to Maslow?
esteem needs
taking a risk by entering an advanced poetry competition is what according to Maslow?
self-actualization needs
Carl Rogers purported that the core element of an individual’s personality is
self-concept
what is self-concept?
refers to how someone perceives his or her unique set of characteristics, skills, qualities, and abilities.
what is self-esteem?
is how positively or negatively a person evaluates him- or herself based on life experiences. An individual’s self-esteem is high when self-evaluation is consistent with thoughts and actions. For example, a person may believe that he is a good tennis player based on the consistency of his winning matches. However, self-esteem may be low if a person’s evaluation is inconsistent with life experiences. For example, if someone considers himself to be a good tennis player and consistently loses matches, then his self-esteem regarding his abilities at tennis declines markedly.
Rogers (1959) believed that the motivational source of personality was based on the fundamental tendency of the individual to develop
a personal sense of self-awareness and self-acceptance within the self-concept.
difference between actal self and ideal self:
actual self: the current state of being
ideal self: the one you would like to become
what is conditiona positive regard
acceptance by others only when meeting their expectations
a therapist sould use a onditional positive rgard or an unconditional positive regard?
unconditional positive regard?
what is unconditional positive rgard?
acceptance by others for who they are without passing judgement on them.
When such an attitude is displayed, Rogers believed individuals are more willing to take risks and test the limits of their abilities in an attempt to establish a more accurate sense of self without fearing the judgment of significant others.
true or false?
A common misconception of the attitude of unconditional positive regard is it requires the total acceptance of whatever individuals wish to do under any circumstances.
false
According to Rogers, what it really means is that while others may unconditionally accept the desires and wishes a person might have, they do not need to accept the expression of harmful or destructive behaviors. It is through the realistic use of unconditional positive regard that parents teach their children to express their feelings and control their behavior. Receiving unconditional positive regard helps children foster high self-esteem and develop a similar sense of respect for the feelings of others.
strengths of humanistic perspectives
- Favorable view of personality and humans in general and operating on a conscious level
- Emphasis on a motivation for self-improvement and seeking our full potential- this is kind of where our personality develops from: motivation to be the best people that we can be
limitation of humanistic perspective
- Includes many concepts and processes to describe personality operation that are
difficult to explain and objectively test- you can not quantify it the self actualize
______________ is the evaluative component of the self-concept.
a
Self-actualization
b
The metric self
c
Self-realization
d
Self-esteem
e
The true self
d
Self-esteem
Explanation
Self-esteem is how highly a person thinks of themselves based on past examples. A person who thinks they’re a poor tennis player but consistently wins matches would have higher self-esteem after winning those matches.
In order to be accepted by the rest of the other fraternity members, Bob must agree to do their laundry for the next four weeks and have no contact with members of other fraternities for the next two weeks. In this case, Bob is receiving ______________ from the other fraternity members.
a
emotional leverage
b
tough love
c
conditional affirmative respect
d
conditional positive regard
d
conditional positive regard
Explanation
Conditional positive regard is when people trade acceptance and encouragement for conformity.
According to the social-cognitive perspective, principal processes by which people develop certain cognitions (i.e., thoughts, feelings, beliefs, assumptions, perceptions, expectations) about themselves are based on
on noting the consequences of their behavior and observing the behavior of others across a variety of situations. From this perspective, it is the unique expression of these cognitions that creates individual differences in personality.
According to Albert Bandura, a core element of personality is the
the self-system
what is the self-system according to Albert Bandura? give an example
The self-system is a set of cognitions that people use to observe, evaluate, and regulate their behavior in different situations. For example, a shy student notices that at a specific pub on game day, those wearing a home-team ball cap seem to have an easier time striking up conversations with others than those not wearing one.
An important process in the development of an individual’s self-system is
is observing and evaluating the consequences of others’ behaviors. Using these cognitions, individuals develop the ability to self-regulate. The self-system helps guide individual behavior choices by cognitively processing the complexity of different situations, including the various potential consequences of different behaviors.
what is self-efficacy?
is the belief about one’s ability to successfully perform in a given situation. High levels of self-efficacy occur when a person feels confident in their ability to excel in a variety of situations. Those with low levels of self-efficacy lack the confidence necessary to perform in different contexts;
For Julian Rotter (1966, 1990), the core element of personality is based on one’s
locus of control
what is locus of control?
person’s belief in the extent to which they control what happens to them.
what kind of type of locus of control?
internal and external
explain external locus of control:
Individuals with an external locus of control have the general expectation that they lack control over the events in their lives
explain internal locus of control:
Individuals with an external locus of control have the general expectation that they lack control over the events in their lives
those with an internal locus of control are more likely to take responsibility for their health, study more to get higher grades, and be able to cope with the stresses of life better than individuals with an external locus of control
if they have maladaptive behaviours, including excessive alcohol consumption, internet addiction,college students, they have what kind of locus of control?
external locus of control
those with an internal locus of control are more likely to take responsibility for their health, study more to get higher grades, and be able to cope with the stresses of life better than individuals with an external locus of control
learned helplessness
what is learned helplessness
a sense of hopelessness in which individuals believe their ability to prevent unpleasant events in life is outside of their control
a heightened sense of learned helplessness is believed to be a contributing factor to the incidence of
depressive disorders, as individuals literally “give up” trying to take steps to improve the quality of their lives because of past failures
For Walter Mischel, an important personality process associated with the expression of personality is
the ability to delay gratification and the consequences it creates
what is delay gratification?
is the willingness to forgo a smaller but immediate reward for a larger reward in the future.
Mischel has documented the importance of ……………as a core component of successful personality adjustment in a variety of areas
delay gratification
Instead, results indicate that the child’s social and economic background predict both
the ability of a child to hold out for a larger reward in the marshmallow test and success later in life.
strengths of social-cognitive perspective
- Emphasis on cognitive factors operating at a conscious level of awareness
- Empirical evidence in support of the operation of personality
limitations of social cognitive perspective
- Lack of emphasis on some of the unconscious and emotional elements that
influence the operation of personality - Lack of attention to explanations for the developmental aspects of personality
Manny is considering asking Rachel for a date. He looks at her facial expression when she comes into the coffee shop for her afternoon cappuccino. Although she is smiling when she enters the coffee shop, Manny decides not to ask for a date because she kisses the guy sitting at her regular table after she buys her cappuccino. According to Bandura, Manny is processing this information through his _________.
a
cognitive network
b
self-system
c
system of mental reconstruction
d
cognitive map
b
self-system
Explanation
Manny is thinking through the consequences of his actions of asking Rachel out on a date and decides not to given that she is unlikely to accept a date with him after kissing another guy.
Randy asks his coach to let him be the starting pitcher for the league championship game because he has been practicing his curveball all week. According to Bandura, Randy is demonstrating _________.
a
self-realization
b
extended expectancies
c
self-efficacy
d
an external locus of control
c
self-efficacy
Explanation
Randy feels confident in his ability to throw a curveball because he has been practicing. Randy thinks he will also perform well in the championship game. This evaluation of ability is self-efficacy.
Anne believes she can make an A on her next chemistry test if she spends the weekend studying. Anne’s views about her grade on the chemistry test reflect a(n) ___________.
a
retroactive locus of control
b
internal locus of control
c
external locus of control
d
affective locus of control
b
internal locus of control
Explanation
Because Anne believes she can study to improve her grade and thus have control over her life, she has an internal locus of control.
Rubin’s friends ask if he wants to go camping this weekend. Although he could use the fun and relaxation, Rubin stays home and studies because he knows his chances of getting into medical school next year depend on the grades he gets this semester. According to Mischel, Rubin is demonstrating his tendency to ________.
a
focus on cognitive rewards over extrinsic rewards
b
delay gratification
c
respond to conditional positive regard
d
create cognitive-outcome expectancies
b
delay gratification
Explanation
Rubin is delaying gratification. While Rubin would enjoy camping this weekend, he’s going to study to have a better chance of getting into medical school, which will be even more enjoyable.
three biological processes associated with the operation and expression of personality:
the behavioral genetics perspective, the neurological perspective, and the evolutionary perspective
The behavioral genetics perspective examines the degree to which
contributions from certain inherited biological factors (i.e., our genes) interact with environmental factors (i.e., our family environment or socioeconomic status) to determine the expression of certain personality characteristics in different groups. This perspective is at the level of the group rather than the individual.
what is the concordance rate?
the degree to which a characteristic , trait, or disease that occurs in one twin similarly occurs in the second twin.
higher the value, the more similarity there is.
the genetic contribution is not the same for different personality traits
what is neurologic perspective(physiological factors)
examines the extent to which various physiological factors (e.g., hormones and neurotransmitters) and brain activity (e.g., arousal and inhibition) determine the expression of certain personality characteristics.
why high sensation-seekers continue to take greater and greater risks (e.g., gamble more) to maintain their level of interest and avoid boredom.
Specific brain processes and structures are associated with the expression of certain personality characteristics. Compared to low sensation-seekers, high sensation-seekers tend to exhibit a larger pattern of arousal in the brain in response to a new stimulus but a much faster reduction in arousal to that same stimulus when experiencing it again and again over time (
the ascending reticular activating system(ARAS) does what?
acts as a filter, is responsible for regulating arousal in the brain, and is linked with the personality dimension of introversion and extraversion
explan the link between introverts and ARAS
introverts tend to have a level of cortical activity that is higher than average
The tendency for introverts to be more socially withdrawn seems to reflect their desire to reduce the additional stimulation of being around others
explain the link between extroverts and ARAS
extraverts seem to have a lower level of arousal
the tendency of extraverts to seek out the company and stimulation of others seems to reflect their desire to increase the amount of activity to compensate for their generally lower-than-average level of arousal.
The evolutionary perspective uses
evolutionary theory to account for differences in personality because these differences are adaptive responses to the two fundamental challenges of evolution: survival and reproductive success.
The personality characteristics associated with survival include…and explain them
conscientiousness (Friedman et al., 1993), which makes individuals more likely to engage in health-promoting behaviors and avoid risks, and optimism, which makes individuals more likely to have fewer symptoms and quicker recovery when dealing with medical concerns (
the evolutionary perspective says there is a negative personality characteristics:
hostile type A personality and neuroticism
explain the hostility
Individuals demonstrating this pattern of hostility tend to suppress their feeling of emotional distress, frustration, and anger, thereby increasing the effects of these emotions on their overall health, which can often lead to abuse of tobacco, alcohol, and drugs to seek comfort.
explain neuroticism:
tend to be overly moody, unstable, and overly anxious, which contributes to a general state of hyperarousal and tension.
In terms of reproductive success, the evolutionary perspective emphasizes those personality characteristics associated with
functionally infertile individuals (FII)—those for whom reproduction is possible but rates of reproductive success are low. for women and men
strengths of biological perspective
- Emphasis on biological factors to understand personality expression
- Empirical support for this perspective
limitations of biological perspective
- Lack of understanding of how certain biological processes are related to specific expressions of personality
- Difficult to make specific predictions based on the complex interconnectedness of biological processes
Jack and Jill are twins but look nothing alike, which makes them ______________ twins.
dizygotic
Explanation
Dizygotic means two fertilized eggs–di for two and zygotic for the union of an egg and a sperm. Because the twins come from two different eggs, they can be different sexes and are no more similar genetically than siblings born years apart.
According to Eysenck, ______________ are associated with an overly active ascending reticular activating system (ARAS).
introverts
Males with high fertility rates tend to _______. Select both answers that apply.
a
be low risk takers and optimistic
b
be extraverted and socially assertive
c
score low on sex-guilt and high on thrill-seeking measures
d
be introverts and have many friends
b
be extraverted and socially assertive
c
score low on sex-guilt and high on thrill-seeking measures
Explanation
Extroverts prefer to be around and interacting with others just as men with higher fertility rates approach more potential mates. People with less sex guilt and who take risks are also those people who have more sex and could potentially have more offspring, even from those risky encounters.
what is factor analysis?
is a statistical technique that uses pattern association to group together many items in a personality test based on their similarity in content.
Eysenck’s Trait Theory: The Three-Factor Theory
extraversion-introversion, neuroticism-emotional stability, and psychoticism-impulse control.
according to eysenck, extroverts are
individuals includes the tendency to like being around others, enjoying excitement, as well as being optimistic and adventurous.
extraverts have a lower level of brain activity in the ARAS
according to eysenck, introverts are
individuals includes being socially distant, introspective, emotionally controlled, calculating, and orderly. According to Eysenck, introverts tend to have a higher level.
what is neuroticism?
includes the tendency to be touchy, restless, moody, and anxious. The expression of personality for individuals possessing a low degree of neuroticism includes being carefree, even-tempered, and calm. Eysenck proposed that neuroticism is associated with increased levels of activity in the sympathetic nervous system.
what is psychoticism?
includes the tendency to be impulsive, cold, aggressive, unconcerned about the rights and welfare of others, and antisocial. The expression of personality for individuals possessing a low degree of psychoticism includes the tendency to be warm, sensitive, and concerned for others. Eysenck proposed that variation in the expression of the aggressive-impulsive nature of psychoticism was linked to high levels of testosterone and low levels of monoamine oxidase
The Big Five Personality Factors are
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion sociable
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
strengths of the trait perspectives
- Stimulated considerable research
- Identified core dimension of personality
- Applied to important behavioral and social issues
limitations of trait perspectives
- Can’t explain the underlying operational expression of major trait dimensions
- Can’t explain how and why the major dimension of personality developed
Francis is characterized as being restless, moody, touchy, and relatively unstable. According to Eysenck, she would probably score high on the ______________ personality dimension.
a
introversion
b
extraversion
c
neuroticism
d
psychoticism
e
ectomorphism
c. neuroticism
Explanation
Restless and moody occurs with anxiety, and unstable is temperamental. Francis would score high on the neuroticism personality dimension.
High levels of the hormone testosterone and low levels of the inhibitory neurotransmitter MAO are the biological basis for the trait dimension of ______________ in Eysenck’s Trait Theory.
a
extraversion-introversion
b
psychoticism-impulse control
c
neuroticism-emotional stability
d
endomorphism-ectomorphism
b. psychoticism-impulse control
Explanation
High testosterone and low MAO is characteristic of psychoticism. People with high levels of psychoticism are impulsive, withdrawn, aggressive, and apathetic.
The factor beginning with “N” of the Big Five classification of traits stands for _______.
a
negativism
b
novelty-seeking
c
neuroticism
d
non-cognitive
c. neuroticism
Explanation
Neuroticism is the only “n” personality trait we’ve covered.
To provide accurate results, personality tests need to have two important qualities:
reliability and validity.
what is reliability?
is the consistency of a measure—a personality questionnaire should yield similar scores each time a person takes it. The notion of consistency over time is referred to as test-retest reliability.
Personality is a construct that is believed to be stable over time (meaning your personality does not change).
A measurement instrument yielded consistent answers across time. Does this mean that it reflects an accurate assessment of personality?
no
Explanation
Reliability or getting the same measurement data multiple times tells you nothing about accuracy or validity. We might know that it consistently takes Brady 30 seconds to multiply two two-digit numbers (reliability), but we don’t know that he has learned how to multiply numbers together correctly (validity).
what is validity?
represents the measure’s accuracy and assesses whether you are measuring what you think you are measuring. Validity is the proper use of a test. Taken together, this means that a test can be reliable but not valid, but if it lacks reliability then it is also not valid.
A ______________ is an individual who specializes in the administration, scoring, and interpretation of personality tests and other techniques of psychological assessment.
Psychometrician
Explanation
A psychometrician would administer and assess standardized tests. Psycholinguists study language and cognition. There is no such thing as a psychomotor manager. A psychoanalyst is a Freudian psychologist. A psychosocial psychologist would be an Erik Erikson descendant.
A sales manager uses overall sales at the end of the year for each new sales trainee to assess the extent to which the test he uses to select trainees has any validity. The sales manager’s approach represents an emphasis on ______________ validity.
a. predictive
Explanation
The sales manager wants the beginning screening test to predict the future performance of how many sales the employees will make.
what is behavioral observation?
involves recording actual behaviors as they occur, such as recording the distance shy and non-shy individuals stand away from others
what is self-monitoring techniques
involve individuals recording the frequency they engage in particular behaviors (e.g., checking one’s cell phone during class) or have certain feelings (e.g., expressions of test anxiety during exams).
what is thought sampling techniques
require individuals to record the nature and frequency of the thoughts they have in certain situations, such as having difficulties when meeting new people at a party (e.g., “I just know people are going to think I’m not interesting.”).
The advantage of observational assessment techniques is that
they make it possible to assess a variety of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in a wide range of situations.
a disadvantage of observational assessment technique is
A disadvantage is that the same response may mean different things to different people, such as a lack of eye contact being interpreted as fear versus disinterest. Another disadvantage is that we must trust individuals using the self-report techniques to be honest when recording their own behaviors, which can come into doubt when the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are of a negative (e.g., feelings or thoughts of depression or suicide) or socially undesirable (e.g., engaging in theft or sexual infidelity) nature.
The advantages of single-dimension tests are that they tend to
to be relatively short and allow the testing professional to focus on the specific dimension of interest, such as shyness, creativity, locus of control, hostility, or sensation-seeking.
Multiple-dimension personality tests attempt to
to measure more than one dimension at a time. For example, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1994) assesses three dimensions, the NEO-Personality Inventory (NEO-PI) measures the Big Five dimensions of personality, and the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire
the most widely used and extensively researched multidimensional personality test is the
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI
The owner of an outdoor adventures company titled “Kiss the Sky,” which specializes in extreme parasailing, asks the five candidates who applied for the position of parasailing instructor to describe their personality. This is an example of the ______________ method of personality assessment.
a.personal interview
Explanation
Because interviewees are asked to describe their personality in open-ended questions, the interviewers can compare answers across applicants. It’s a personal interview.
A personality psychologist studies empathy by watching children interact in a classroom and counting the number of times each child offers to help a classmate while they are doing an arithmetic lesson. This researcher is employing a(n) ______________ assessment technique to measure personality.
observational
Explanation
The personality psychologist is watching the children interact in a classroom (natural and controlled setting) and recording objective measures of behavior. The psychologist’s recording technique would be standardized.
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory assesses ______________ clinical dimensions of personality.
10
Explanation
The full list of 10 clinical scales is hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviate, masculinity-femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, hypomania, and social introversion.
A favorable characteristic feature of objective self-report techniques of personality assessment includes which of the following?
Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer.
a
The freedom of response options allowed to test-takers
b
The standardization of the response options allowed to test-takers
c
An emphasis on the test-takers to provide truthful answers.
The standardization of the response options allowed to test-takers
Explanation
The answers are fixed and have been tested against other measurements for specific constructs.
A distinguishing feature of projective techniques of personality assessment is that which of the following is true? Select both answers that apply.
a
Individuals are asked to respond to ambiguous stimuli
Explanation
People can say as little or as much as they want when describing the inkblots. The inkblots were designed to be ambiguous so they don’t really look like anything. It’s more about the perception of the respondent than the physical characteristics of the inkblot.
In his response to the fourth card he sees, Chris makes up a story featuring a middle-aged man struggling to help his neighbors after a tornado strikes their community. Chris’s personality is being assessed using the ________
Thematic Apperception Test
Explanation
The Thematic Apperception Test is a construction technique in which people create stories for pictures they see.
Which of the following is an advantage of projective personality tests?
Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer.
a
The freedom of expression available to test-takers when responding to the test stimuli.
b
The ambiguous nature of the test stimuli makes it easy for test-takers to figure out what the test is measuring.
The freedom of expression available to test-takers when responding to the test stimuli.
Explanation
Projective tests ask respondents to answer however they want to stimuli. There are no objectively correct responses on these tests; they just allow psychologists to see how respondents think.
A basketball coach is interested in the effect of anxiety on athletic performance. He measures how much his players sweat after being told that they will receive less playing time due to their weak performance over the last three games. This is an example of which type of psychophysiological assessment technique for measuring personality?
a: Biochemical measure
b: Electrophysiological measure
c: Cortical measure
d: Affective measure
e: Psychomotor measure
B
Electrophysiological measures include heart rate, muscle tension, and sweating.
A personality psychologist studying post-traumatic stress reactions in flood victims assesses the brain activity of each individual. This is an example of which type of psychophysiological assessment technique for measuring personality?
a - Electrophysiological measure
b- Projective measure
c- Cognitive measure
d- Cortical measure
D - Cortical Measure
The brain surface area is the cortex, and we measure cortical activation for brain activity.
What is a characteristic limitation of psychophysiological assessment techniques?
a- That any given bodily process can have more than one possible meaning
b- That it is difficult to measure bodily processes in an objective manner
c- That there is too little variation in the manner in which individuals respond to a particular bodily process
A
A disadvantage of psychophysiological assessment techniques is that increased sweating can occur with fear, warm weather, nausea, and physical activity. One biological process (sweating) is controlled by many external and internal events.
