Chapter 13

Question 1

ultrasocial species

Answer 1

species that form large societies, divide labour, cooperate, and have food management systems (e.g. agriculture)

Question 2

four examples of ultrasocial species

Answer 2

• ants
• bees
• termites
• mole rats

Question 3

Humans are considered ultrasocial because…

Answer 3

they demonstrate most (but, not all) ultrasocial characteristics

Question 4

social psychology

Answer 4

the study of the causes and consequences of being social

Question 5

The social behaviours of animals are typically governed by…

Answer 5

resource availability

Question 6

cooperation vs. competition

Answer 6

• cooperation is working together toward a common goal
• competition is struggling with one another to obtain limited resources

Question 7

aggression

Answer 7

behaviour with the purpose of harmoing one another

Question 8

cooperation and competition both serve this same purpose

Answer 8

survival

Question 9

the prisoner’s dilemma

Answer 9

You and your friend are arrested, but the police have limited evidence against you. Without being able to communicate with your partner, you are given the choice to confess or to remain silent. If you both remain silent, you will each be sentenced to one year. If you both confess, you will each receive ten years. However, if one confesses and the other remains silent, the prisoner who confesses will be set free, and the silent prisoner will receive a 20-year sentence.

This is a classic model of competition and cooperation. Cooperation is moderately rewarded (a one-year sentence), while competition is punished (ten years). If only one of you confesses, however, the confessor is highly rewarded (freedom), while the other person is severely punished (20 years).

Question 10

the tit-for-tat (TFT) strategy

Answer 10

you make cooperation your first move, and then repeat your partner’s successive moves

• it is nice (cooperation first)
• allows for retaliation (competition after your partner competes)
• allows for forgiveness (cooperation after your partner cooperates

Question 11

social loafing

Answer 11

reaping the benefits of cooperation without putting in the same effort (e.g. certain group members carrying a project)

Question 12

in-groups

Answer 12

collections of people often cooperation together, due to having something in common (e.g. families, teams, religions, ethnicities)

Question 13

prejudice

Answer 13

• judgments made before meeting individuals
• often positive prejudice (positive assumptions) to in-groups and negative prejudice (negative assumptions) to out-groups

Question 14

discrimination

Answer 14

• unequal treatment/sharing
• often positive discrimination (better treatment) to in-groups, and negative discrimination (worse treatment) to out-groups

Question 15

the onset of human biases

Answer 15

• prejudice and discrimination is deeply engrained in human evolution
• present in non-human primates
• arises early in childhood

Question 16

experiment on infant/children preferences

Answer 16

• 5-6 month olds looked more at native speakers, than non-native speakers
• 10 month olds were more likely to take a toy from native speaker, than non-native speakers when offered
• 5 year olds would rather be friends with a native speaker their age, than a non-native speaker their age

Question 17

the impact of experience with diversity on group biases

Answer 17

increased experience with diversity decreases group biases (e.g. white students with Black teachers are less likely to show discrimination to Black people)

Question 18

implicit biases (or unexamined beliefs)

Answer 18

group biases that we are unaware of

Question 19

the Implicit Association Test

Answer 19

• measures biases that we are unable (not unwilling) to report ourselves
• you categorize words into groups as quickly as possible
• you’ll categorize words slower and less accurately if it doesn’t match implicit biases

Question 20

social facilitation

Answer 20

• the presence of other people changes individual performance
• can be positive (e.g. practicing best with a team) or negative (e.g. choking during a performance)

Question 21

group cognition

Answer 21

group decision-making

Question 22

four problematic patterns of group cognition

Answer 22

• group polarization: making more extreme decisions (e.g. individual jurors often want softer punishments than a riled up grand jury)
• groupthink: reaching a consensus too quickly, agreeing is easier than disagreeing
• diffusion of responsibility: worse decisions often made due to less responsibility for your actions when with others as opposed to yourself, “mob mentality”
• common knowledge effect: only talking about information everybody knows, no new information inputted

Question 23

the frustration-aggression hypothesis

Answer 23

• animals are aggressive when their desires are frustrated (i.e. scarcity of resources)
• e.g. Animal A frustrates Animal B’s desire for food, so Animal B attacks Animal A.

Question 24

two reasons researchers think the frustration-aggression hypothesis is too narrow

Answer 24

• humans can aggress when feeling negative emotions or pain
• seasonal variation in aggression (higher in summer in the Northern hemisphere)

Question 25

biological and environmental factors for aggression

Answer 25

**biological factors** * genetics * sex * testosterone levels **environmental factors** * culture * societal expectations

Question 26

the two greatest predictors of an individual's level of aggression

Answer 26

* immediate family members that are aggressive * sex

Question 27

the impact of testosterone on aggression

Answer 27

testosterone decreases fear analysis and makes people less afraid to retaliate * males are significantly more aggressive than females * younger males (with higher levels of testosterone) are more aggressive * females with higher levels of testosterone are more aggressive

Question 28

why some cultures are more aggressive than others

Answer 28

the frustration-aggression hypothesis: **socioeconomic inequality** (scarcity of resources)

Question 29

altruism

Answer 29

behaviour that reduces one's fitness in order to increase another's fitness

Question 30

two examples of altruistic-like behaviours in non-human animals

Answer 30

* **kin selection:** extending altruistic behaviour to related individuals, to increase the likelihood that one's genetic material will be passed on * **reciprocation:** extending altruistic behaviour with the expectation that the favour will be returned (e.g. protection, mating) Both of these are not true forms of altruism.

Question 31

why humans can be truly altruistic

Answer 31

we have a really advanced prefrontal cortex

Question 32

biological factors for sexual selection in humans

Answer 32

* sperm/egg count * physical requirements * pregnancy changes * females reproduce one a year; males reproduce constantly

Question 33

the sex that is the most sexually selective, and why

Answer 33

**Women** are more sexually selective than men because... * reproduction costs more to a woman * societal pressures (reputations of promsicuity, women are approached more)

Question 34

intragender competition and sexual selection

Answer 34

when more of the same gender are present, that gender tends to be less selective (e.g. if more men are present, men will be less picky when picking a woman)

Question 35

three types of attraction

Answer 35

* physical attraction * situation attraction * psychological attraction

Question 36

physical attraction

Answer 36

* the most powerful **initial** factor in picking a sexual partner * beauty is universally beneficial, but not universal (being beautiful carries benefits but doesn't look the same in all cultres)

Question 37

situational attraction

Answer 37

* the greatest **overall** factor in picking a sexual partner * the mere exposure effect: becoming attracted to people you see a lot * attraction increases in psychologically arousing situations (e.g. fear)

Question 38

the Capilano Bridge experiment and its significance

Answer 38

The Capilano Bridge is a scary bridge that is high up and sways. A single confederate woman asked single men as they passed by if they would participate in her research, and gave out her number to said men. Men who were on the bridge were more likely to contact her than men who weren't. This experiment provides evidence that the psychological arousal of being fearful of the bridge made men feel more attracted/connected to her.

Question 39

confederate

Answer 39

someone who acts as a participant of an experiment, but is actually a researcher

Question 40

psychological attraction

Answer 40

* the more similar to ourselves, the more attracted we feel (i.e. education levels, religion, socioeconomic status, personality)

Question 41

social influence

Answer 41

the attempt to influence others

Question 42

two motivations used for social influence

Answer 42

* the hedonic motivation * the approval motivation

Question 43

compliance vs. obedience

Answer 43

* **compliance:** listening to someone with no authority (higher in people we have relationships with) * **obedience:** listening to someone of authority

Question 44

three compliance persuasion techniques

Answer 44

* **door-in-the-face:** a large, unreasonable demand is followed by a smaller, more reasonable demand, making the smaller demand more likely (e.g. "Donate a large amount... Give what you can.") * **foot-in-the-door:** a small demand is followed by a larger demand that may have been originally rejected, making the larger demand more likely (e.g. liking an Instagram post leads to product advertisements * **low-balling:** making further demands to someone who has already committed to a course of action, to appeal to consistency (e.g. a car dealer leaving to check the deal with their supervisor and coming back with extra charges, to someone who's already publicly stated they want to buy the car; the person buying the car doesn't want to go back on their word)

Question 45

the hedonic motivation and examples of it and social influence

Answer 45

hedonic motivation is the attraction to pleasure and aversion to pain EXAMPLES: * **bonuses** at work or school are given as awards to promote good behaviour (attraction to pleasure) * people listen to the governemnt because they don't want to be punished with **fines/jail sentences** (aversion to pain)

Question 46

Lepper's marker experience and its significance

Answer 46

Children were divided into two groups: one group in which children were given a prize for drawing, and one group where children could draw but were given no prize. The next day, children who weren't given a prize continued to draw, but children who were given a prize were less likely to draw. This is significant because it demonstrates that the hedonic principle with rewards can backfire. When a behaviour is already intrinsically motivated, the addition of a prize can make it extrinsically motivate (i.e. the children now expect a prize for doing something they already like doing).

Question 47

the approval motivation and examples of it and social influence

Answer 47

* we want other people to like us * we conform to **norms** (normative influence) because it makes us more likeable (e.g. not yelling mid-lecture)

Question 48

Asch's conformity study and its significance

Answer 48

Participants sat in a room with seven other confederates, and were asked to complete an easy task (picking the line of the correct length that matched); everyone answered correctly for the first two trials. For the last trial, the real participant answered last, with the other confederates answering incorrectly first. 75% of the real participants answered incorrectly, even though they knew the obvious answer. This is significance because it demonstrates that we often conform to others' behaviours (the normative influence).

Question 49

four things that could affect Asch's conformity study

Answer 49

* **group biases** (i.e. if the confederates are similar/different to the participant) * **personality:** participants with low levels of agreeableness are more authoratative * **body language** (i.e. confident/anxious confederates) * **the number of confederates that choose incorrectly** (the more confederates that choose incorrectly, the more likely the participant will choose incorrectly as well)

Question 50

Attitudes are formed based on...

Answer 50

personal experiences

Question 51

cognitive dissonance

Answer 51

* the uncomfortable state that occurs when behaviour and attitudes don't match * can be resolved through attitude change (e.g. thinking about the cons of a decision you didn't make, thinking about the pros of a decision you did make)