Chapter 11 Flashcards
The Developing Mind: Life Span Development
1
Q
the conflict and resolution of young adulthood
A
- conflict: intimacy vs. isolation
- resolution: achievement of a successful romantic relationship
2
Q
why infants fail false belief tasks
A
- lack of a theory of mind (egocentrism to sociocentrism)
- struggling to lie (linguistics)
3
Q
the age of which children begin to prefer sex-specific toys
A
12-18 months
4
Q
the Sally-Anne task
A
The Sally-Anne task is a false belief task used to measure infants’ theory of mind.
A video is played; two girls are present, named Sally and Anne. Sally puts a ball in her basket, and then goes away. Anne then moves the ball into her box. After watching said video, the child is then asked where Sally will look for her ball.
Adults/older children with a working theory of mind would say that Sally will look in the basket because that’s where she left the ball (just like looking for your phone where you left it last when you lose it, not knowing someone may have moved it).
Most 3 year olds, however, fail; they would say that Sally would look in the box. They know where the ball is, and struggle to suspend that belief.
5
Q
the Soviet psychologist that stressed the role of culture in the development of children
A
Lev Vygotsky
6
Q
genetic risks to development in mothers vs. fathers
A
- the older a woman gets, the more exposure to potentially harmful environmental influences that raise the probability of something going wrong with division
- it takes a man 2 months to produce a sperm cell, which reduces the chances of the cell’s exposure to harmful influences
7
Q
problems with Jean Piaget’s theory
A
Piaget saw cognitive development as stage-like, whereas variability (e.g. individual differences, cultures) make it more gradual
8
Q
qualities and milestones of the preoperational stage
A
- non-conservational: unable to engage in internal mental operations (e.g. changing the appearance of an object doesn’t change its quantity)
- egocentrism to sociocentrism: starting to understand other’s points of view
- seeing is believing: whatever you can see must be true
9
Q
two different types of memory
A
- episodic memory: personal information, the ability to remember past events
- semantic memory: worldly information, the ability to remember general information
10
Q
according to Erikson, people in their midlives experience one of these two things
A
- generativity: the feeling that your life had value, regardless of whether you met your goals or not
- stagnation: not finding much satisfaction in your life
11
Q
accommodation vs. assimilation
A
(vaguely speaking), accommodation is a minor change, whereas assimilation is a major change
12
Q
four developmental processes in brain development
A
- neurogenesis: creation of neurons
- myelination of axons
- synaptogenesis: creation of synapses (neural connections)
- synaptic pruning: deletion of less useful synapses; “use it or lose it”
13
Q
why babies cry
A
- crying is a baby’s first attempt to communicate with parents
- babies cry for a reason
14
Q
cognitive changes in late adulthood
A
intelligence remains relatively stable during adulthood, assuming good health
15
Q
the continuity-discontinuity debate
A
- continuity: development is smooth and gradual (e.g. an acorn growing into a big oak tree)
- discontinuity: development changes abruptly between stages (e.g. a butterfly emerging from a chrysalis)
16
Q
what a midlife crisis is
A
no evidence that midlife crises exist
17
Q
the four main periods of human development
A
- prenatal period and infancy: conception to 2-3 years
- childhood: 2-3 years to 11 years
- adolescence: 12 years to brain maturation (25 years)
- adulthood: brain maturation (25 years) to death
18
Q
examples of temporary newborn reflexes
A
- babinski: stroking a baby’s foot causes toes to spread out
- moro: if a baby’s head falls backwards, the arms first spread out and then hug; evolutionarily from primates clinging to adults
- palmar: placing an object in the baby’s hand produces grapsing; evolutionaryily from primates grasping onto adult fur
- rooting: stroking a baby’s cheek results in the baby turning toward the touch and opening their mouth; helps in breastfeeding
- sucking: the baby sucks anything that touches the roof of the mouth; helps in breastfeeding
- stepping: placing the baby’s feet on a flat surface initiates stepping; precursor to walking
- tonic neck reflex: turning your head where your arms go
19
Q
examples of permanent newborn reflexes
A
- coughing
- sneezing
- blinking: eyes close in response to strong stimuli to protect eyes
- withdrawing from pain
20
Q
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
A
a group of conditions (i.e. physical abnormalities, cognitive and behavioural problems) that can occur in an individual when a mother consumes alcohol during pregnancy
21
Q
an example of Piaget’s schemas with “living things”
- dog
- cat
- kangaroo
- shark
- tree
A
As a child lives their life, they assimilate; things are added to their “living things” schema.
- As she sees a dog, she may think living things bark, chase squirrels, eat dog food, etc.
- As she sees a cat, she may think living things are pets, have fur, are friendly, etc.
- As she sees a kangaroo, she may think living things live on land, are close to their babies, etc.
- As she sees a shark, she may think living things eat, make noise, have eyes, are able to mov, etc.
- When she sees a tree, assimilation occurs; there is a radical change in the meaning of being “alive”, causing her to adjust her schema.
22
Q
the stage of life that is the peak of physical development
A
young adulthood
23
Q
egocentrism vs. sociocentrism
A
Egocentrism is thinking the world revolves around you; things exist because you can see it.
Sociocentrism is the development of a theory of mind; understanding that human behaviour is guided by mental representations that differ amongst individuals.
24
Q
theory of mind (TOM)
A
the understanding that others have thoughts that are different from one’s own
25
Ignoring children results in ________, whereas meeting children's needs relibaly results in ________.
clinginess, independence
26
the grating visual acuity test
Unlike adults that are able to verbally report what they see on a verbal acuity test, other methods must be used to test the eyesight (visual acuity) of infants. The grating visual acuity test utilizes preferential looking to do this.
Different thicknesses of stripes are shown, from super thick stripes all the way to a practically solid grey background. As stripes are more interesting than a solid grey background, babies should look at the stripes more often. However, if a baby is looking at everything equally, that means they cannot see the stripes, and their vision doesn't meet the threshold.
27
Perceptual development begins ____________, but become much richer after ____________.
*in utero*, birth
28
the two major physiological changes that occur during adolescence
* puberty (11-13 years)
* increase and refinement of connections in the prefrontal cortex (ends around 22-25 years)
29
the three alcohol-related diagnoses that make up fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
* fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
* partial fetal alcohol syndrome (pFAS)
* alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder
30
attachment
* an emotional bond between children and caregivers
* an essential part of healthy human development
31
motor development ranges in North America
* **lying down, lifting head:** 0-1 month
* **lying down, chest up, arm support:** 2-4 months
* **rolling over:** 2-4 months
* **bearing some weight on legs:** 3-6 months
* **sitting without support:** 4-7 months
* **standing with support:** 5-10 months
* **pulling self to stand:** 6-10 months
* **walking with support:** 7-12 months
* **standing alone:** 9-14 months
* **walking alone:** 11-14 months
* **walking up stairs:** 14-22 months
32
Harry Harlow's rhesus monkey experiment and his conclusion
Harlow would remove newborn rhesus monkeys from their biological mothers, and would present them with two fake mothers: one made of wire, the other made of cloth. The rhesus monkeys often clung to the cloth mother when threatened, proving that contact comfort is critical in the formation of a strong attachment.
33
Piaget's four stages of children's cognitive development
* sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)
* preoperational stage (2 to 6 years)
* concrete operational stage (6 to 12 years)
* formal operational stage (12 years to adulthood)
34
the Swiss psychologist that pioneered the understanding of children's cognitive development
Jean Piaget
35
Piaget's ideas of chidren's cognitive development
As children acquire knowledge, they organize it into a schema.
* If new knowledge fits into their existing schema, they add it (**assimilation**).
* If new knowledge doesn't fit into their existing schema, they modify their schema to fit this new knowledge (**accomodation**).
Through **equilibration**, children assimilate and accomodate to make sense of the world.
36
the three periods of prenatal development
**germinal/zygotic period (0 to 2 weeks)**
* the developing organism is a "zygote"
* during the first gestational week, the zygote differentiates into three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm)
* during the second gestational week, the zygote travels down the fallopian tubes to the uterus, where it implants into the uterine lining
**embryonic period (3 to 8 weeks)**
* the developing organism is an "embryo"
* organs develop from the three germ layers
* sex organs differentiate into male and female
**fetal period (9 weeks to birth)**
* the developing organism is a "fetus"
* continued growth and maturation of organ systems
* sensory experiences and learning continues
37
the four types of parenting styles, and which one is most ideal
* **authoritative:** high parental support and high behavioural regulation
* **indulgent:** high parental support and low behavioural regulation
* **authoritarian:** low parental support and high behavioural regulation
* **uninvolved:** low parental support and low behavioural regulation
Authoritativeness is the most ideal parenting style.
38
changes in memory in adulthood
* **semantic memory** is relatively stable throughout adulthood
* **episodic memory** declines over time
39
qualities and milestones of the sensorimotor stage
* **focused on the present,** rather than the past and future
* **exploration:** by crawling and physically interacting with new objects
* **circular reactions:** primary, secondary, and tertiary repetitive actions (e.g. sucking on a finger repeatedly)
* **object permanence:** the ability to form mental representations of objects that aren't present
* **progression of language**
40
Newborn babies (a few minutes old) recognize their mother's...
voice
41
prenatal development
the period of time prior to birth
42
why newborns sleep so much
brain development (most of the sleep is REM sleep)
43
the German-American developmental scientist that developed a theory of conflicts and resolutions, and theorized social development proceeded in stages
Erik Erikson
44
qualities and milestones of the concrete operational stage
* **conservational:** able to engage in internal mental operations; logical thinking
* **learning by doing** (concrete operations)
45
The effects of aging on an adult's physical status are... (mild/extreme)
mild, assuming good health
46
examples of teratogens
* alcohol
* drugs
coffee
* OTC pain medication
* viral infections
47
why positivity bias declines quickly at school age
* social comparison
* increase of cognitive skill/perspective-taking
* objective evaluations from school
48
another word for "neonate"
newborn
49
the conflict and resolution of adolescence
* **conflict:** identity vs. confusion
* **resolution:** achievement of a stable identity
50
the increase in infants' visual acuity
* 20/400 to 20/120 in the first month of life
* adult-like acuity, colour perception, and depth perception in 6 months
51
Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation Procedure
The Strange Situation was developed by Mary Ainsworth to operationalize and measure individual differences in attachment.
A baby enters an unfamiliar room with their caregiver. The baby explores the room; walking around and playing with the toys. A stranger walks into the room, but the baby is unfazed; maybe even playing with them.
The caregiver then leaves the room, and the baby cries. The stranger attemps to console the baby, but to no avail. When the caregiver returns, the baby instantly stops crying and clings to the caregiver.
After some time has past, the caregiver and stranger leave together; the baby starts to cry again. The stranger reenters, but the baby still continues to cry. When the caregiver returns oncemore, the baby instantly stops crying and clings to her caregiver.
Exploring the room, crying when the caregiver leaves, and clinging/stopping to cry at reunions are all examples of secure attachment. However, insecure attachments would breed different results (e.g. pushing the caregiver away at reunions as if mad, ceasing to stop crying at reunions).
52
Newborns' motor skills consist predominantly of...
reflexes
53
the universal-ecological debate
* **universal:** development is common to all people (e.g. immaturity amongst young teens resutlts in young gang members)
* **ecological:** development is impacted by culture and environment (e.g. child soldiers are a result of poverty)
54
zone of proximal development
in Vygotsky's theory, tasks that the child can accomplish with the assistance of more experienced individuals
55
the unexpected contents task
The unexpected contents task is a false belief task used to measure infants' theory of mind.
A child is given a box of something they know (e.g. candy) and are asked what they think is in the box. The child then responds, saying what they think is in the box (e.g. "Candy is in the box."). The child is then asked to open the box and see what's inside. The box is in reality filled with an unexpected content (e.g. pencils), surprising the child. The box is closed oncemore, and the child is asked what they think their friend would say is in the box if they saw it.
Most 3 and 4 year olds fail this test; they would respond that that their friend would say that the box is filled of the unexpected content (e.g. pencils). They know what's in the box, and struggle to suspend that belief.
56
fetal audition and fetal heartbeat
* fetal heartbeat changes in reaction to different voices
* fetal heartbeat is different in reaction to music, compared to human speech
57
critical periods, in relation to teratogens
* **central nervous system:** 3-6 weeks
* **heart:** 3-6 weeks
* **arms:** 4-7 weeks
* **eyes:** 4-8 weeks
* **legs:** 4-7 weeks
* **teeth:** 6-8 weeks
* **palate:** 6-12 weeks
* **external genitalia:** 7-12 weeks
* **ear:** 4-12 weeks
58
when the fetus starts to hear well
month 7
59
An infant's attachment style predicts many outcomes in adulthood, including...
* academic achievement
* emotional health
* relationship quality
* self-esteem
60
qualities and milestones of the formal operational stage
* **ability to handle abstract concepts** (e.g. what-if questions)
* **problem solving:** trial and error
* **idealism:** wanting the world to be a better place
61
Much variability in self-esteem is due to...
* heredity (identical twins' self-esteem correlates to a greater degree than non-twin siblings')
* physical appearance and abilities
62
Children at the same age with different motor abilities have different ____________ abilities.
visual/perceptual
63
five challenges that may emerge during an adolescent's identity formation
**identity confusion**
* very common
* incomplete and incoherent sense of self
**identity foreclosure**
* premature identity choice
* an individual goes all in with a decision about their identity (e.g. sexuality, religion, career, friend group) and are forced to "restart" when they realize that it isn't what they want
**negative identity**
* identity formed in opposition to others/social norms
* e.g. going to study music when your parents want you to become a doctor
**personal fable**
* assuming no one can understand what you're going through
* remnant of egocentrism from childhood
**imaginary audience**
* assuming that everyone notices flaws about you; you think you're the center of attention
* remnant of egocentrism from childhood
64
the gender with overall lower self-esteem, and why
Girls tend to have lower self-esteem; this greater decline at adolescent age is due to gender differences (social, not biological), double standards, beauty standards, etc.
65
rank-order stability
* the consistency of many psychological and physical traits across the lifespan (e.g. children with lower self-esteem tend to have low self-esteem as adults)
* individuals tend to keep their general "rank" in a population (e.g. a child with lower self-esteem in a certain group, will likely have lower self-esteem in that same group years later)
66
two developmental processes that are highly related
perceptual and motor development
67
how long newborns sleep per day
16-18 hours
68
cognitive development
the emergence of the ability to think and understand
69
nature and nurture explained in life span development
* epigenetic influences accumulate over the life span
* younger people have more in common with each other, as they have had less time for epigenetic interactions between their genes and experience
70
the age of which children begin to use gender labels consistently
3 years
71
why older adulthood is one of the happiest periods of life
* older adults tend to remember positive stimuli better than negative stimuli
* older adults' amygdalae are more activated by positive emotions than negative emotions
72
two achievements during an adolescent's identity formation
**emergence of abstract thinking**
* one's personality traits become more important
**emergence of self-socialization**
* friends/social groups become of paramount importance, maybe even more important than family
* willing to seek out and choose your own friends
73
preferential looking
* used to measure infants' perception
* infants (and adults) spend most time looking at things that are interesting or familiar
74
Karen Adolph's motor development experiment and its importance
Karen set up a "path" for two different baby to crawl, with their mother at the end holding a phone to entice them. One baby was only able to crawl, whereas another baby was able to walk. Both babies were fitted with a head-mounted camera.
The baby that crawled could only see the floor; he needed to stop crawling to look up to his target, leaving him to crawl more sporadically, and to only crawl towards his mother with support.
The baby that walked could look up straight and ran towards his mother without support the moment Karen let go.
Karen and her colleagues argue that children with higher motor abilities (i.e. ability to walk) have higher perceptual abilities, due to the ability to gain more visual information.
75
these can slightly alter the development of motor skills, and an example
environmental/cross-cultural factors
e.g. Some cultures wait for their children and let them walk/fall alone; allowing them to figure out how to do it overall in a quicker time. However, some cultures may swaddle/protect their child; lengthening the time it takes for them to figure it out.
76
two ways to measure individual differences in attachments
* the extent to which an infant uses their caregiver as a **secure base**; the more secure an infant feels, the more likely they are to explore, knowing there's safety to return to
* how the infant reacts to **reunions** with their caregiver after short separations
77
the prenatal period in which most experience and learning occurs
the fetal period (after 9 weeks)
78
the trend of self-esteem over a lifespan
* Young children have high self-esteem.
* Adolescents have relatively lower self-esteem.
* Adults gain self-esteem gradually throughout development.
* Elderly adults begin to lose self-esteem, as there's a decrease in health/physical abilities, and loss of loved ones.
79
why you can't ask a child "What would Mommy/Daddy think?" in false belief tasks
the person's name who is used can't be a parent as, to kids, parents know everything
80
sensation vs. perception
**Sensation** is the sensory organs' detection of physical, environmental signals, whereas **perception** is one's specific organization and interpretation of said information into a coherent understanding.
81
changes in relationships in adolescence/adulthood
adolescents and young adults tend to value the quantity of friends (larger social groups), whereas older adults tend to value the quality of friends (smaller, closer-knit social groups)
82
Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development explained
* Erik Erikson split a human's lifespan into eight major stages of development
* in each stage, there is a major conflict
* an individual has successfully moved onto the next stage when the conflict is resolved
83
the classic procedure for demonstrating theory of mind
the false belief task (the "Sally-Anne" task)
84
teratogens
external agents that cause damage or death during prenatal development
85
the two rules that the development of complex motor behaviours follow
* **cephalocaudal rule:** "top-to-bottom" rule that describes the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the head to the feet (e.g. learning how to turn your head before learning how to walk)
* **proximodistal rule:** "inside-to-outside" rule that describes the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the center to the periphery (e.g. learning how to move your arms before learning how to move your fingers)
86
the grandmother effect
a healthy woman may life many years after menopause, due to wanting to care for her grandchildren and free her children from other responsibilities
87
how young children (before school) describe themselves
* in physical, qualitative terms (things you can see)
* positively (positivity bias)
88
this happens to positivity bias quickly at school age
it declines
89
Teratogens most affect fetuses during...
sensitive and critical periods
90
the motor skill with the smallest and biggest range development in North America
* **lying down and raising head:** 0-1 month
* **walking up steps:** 13-22 months
91
Motor development has an effect on ____________ development.
visual
92
examples of major psychological changes that occur during adolescence
* self-esteem
* identity
* morality
* sexuality
93
postformal thought
* how adolescents often think
* the "right answer" is often ambiguous and complex, rather than concrete
