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Freshman (semester 1) > Chapter 12-14 Biology > Flashcards

Chapter 12-14 Biology Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three parts of the Cell Theory?

A
  1. Cells are the basic unit of life
  2. Cells come from pre-existing cells
  3. All living organisms are composed of 1+ cells
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2
Q

What steps are required for cellular replication

A
  1. Replicate DNA (2 copies)
  2. Separate cytoplasm, DNA, organelles
  3. Grow cell size
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3
Q

Define chromosome

A

Bundles of DNA wrapped around histones

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4
Q

Define sister chromatid

A

Chromatid copies attached at the centromere, both sister chromatids have the same DNA

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5
Q

Define gene

A

Region that codes for RNA

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6
Q

Chromatids are one strand of ___-stranded DNA

A

double

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7
Q

Two ___ chromatids make up one chromosome.

A

sister

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8
Q

Before mitosis, where is cohesion between sister chromatids?

A

All the way up. After mitosis, cohesion is at the centromere.

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9
Q

I consist of a single, long DNA double helix wrapped around histones, what am I?

A

Unreplicated chromosome

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10
Q

I consist of two copies of the same DNA helix, what am I?

A

Replicated chromosome

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11
Q

I consist of condensed DNA wrapped around its histones and I am 10,000x shorter than my original length. What am I?

A

Condensed replicated chromosome

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12
Q

Why do chromosomes condense?

A

In order to divide

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13
Q

Why would you see an unraveled chromosome?

A

So it can be read, replicated, and proteins can be made

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14
Q

Which of the following is the correct order for the phases of the cell cycle?

a) G1, G2, S, and M
b) S, G2, M, and G1
c) S, G1, M, and G2
d) S, G2, G1, and M

A

B

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15
Q

Which 3 phases of the cell cycle make up interphase?

A

G1, S, G2

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16
Q

What happens in G1 phase?

A

-Cell grows larger
-Organelles are copied
-Production of NEW proteins

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17
Q

What happens in S-phase?

A

S for synthesis
-DNA is synthesized/replicated

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18
Q

What happens in G2 phase?

A

-Cell grows more
-Duplication of organelles
-Cell begins to reorganize its contents in preparation for mitosis

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19
Q

Interphase v.s. Mitosis

A

Interphase: cell is not dividing, it’s growing and PREPARING to divide
Mitosis: cell is dividing

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20
Q

A certain species of animal has six pairs of chromosomes. How many sister chromatids do the nuclei of these animals have during G2 phase?

a) 48
b) 12
c) 6
d) 24

A

D

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21
Q

When does G2 end?

A

When mitosis begins

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22
Q

What is the difference between a chromosome and a chromatid?

A

A chromatid is one half of a replicated chromosome, whereas a chromosome consists of DNA wrapped around proteins in a highly organized manner.

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23
Q

What are the 3 types of cell reproductions

A
  1. Binary fission (bacteria)
  2. Meiosis (gametes)
  3. Mitosis (somatic cells)
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24
Q

Mitosis starts when ___ or body cells divide. When mitosis is completed ___ identical cells are produced

A

somatic, two

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25
Q

5 stages of Mitosis

A
  1. Prophase
  2. Prometaphase
  3. Metaphase
  4. Anaphase
  5. Telophase
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26
Q

What is interphase?

A

-period between two consecutive mitoses
-uncoiled chromosomes
-cells growing/prepared to divide
MOST TIME SPENT FOR CELLS

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27
Q

Centromere v.s. Centrosome

A

Centromere: connects sister chromatids
Centrosome: where microtubules are made to move chromosomes

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28
Q

What happens in prophase?

A

-chromosomes condense
-spindle apparatus forms

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29
Q

Mitotic spindle fibers are composed of what cellular components?

a) kinetochores
b) microtubules
c) centrosomes
d) actin

A

B

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30
Q

What happens in prometaphase?

A

-nuclear envelope breaks down
-microtubules contact chromosomes at kinetochores

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31
Q

What happens in metaphase?

A

M for middle
-chromosomes line up in the middle

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32
Q

What happens in anaphase?

A

A for “Anna being separated from Elsa”
-sister chromatids separate

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33
Q

What is the metaphase plate?

A

The imaginary plane between two spindle poles

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34
Q

In metaphase each chromosome is held by ____ microtubules from ___ poles.

A

kinetochore, opposite

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35
Q

After which stage of mitosis are two identical sets of chromosomes created?

A

Anaphase

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36
Q

Which two forces pull chromosomes apart?

A

-kinetochore microtubules shrink
-motor proteins of polar microtubules push two poles of cell away from each other

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37
Q

When microtubules move chromosomes during anaphase, ___ subunits are lost from their (+) ends

A

tubulin

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38
Q

What happens in telophase?

A

-nuclear envelope begins to forms
-chromosomes begin to decondense

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39
Q

When mitosis is complete, two independent ___ have formed.

A

nuclei

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40
Q

Cytokinesis in animal cells is when ___-___ interactions pull the plasma membrane inward to divide the cell into two.

A

actin-myosin

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41
Q

After S phase, what makes up a single chromosome?

a) A single double-stranded DNA molecule
b) Two single-stranded DNA molecules
c) Two daughter chromosomes
d) Two sister chromatids

A

D
s=synthesis, DNA will have been replicated and sister chromatids will be conjoined

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42
Q

The structures on sister chromatids where microtubules attach.

A

Kinetochores

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43
Q

The material that makes up eukaryotic chromosomes and consists of DNA molecules with histones.

A

Chromatin

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44
Q

In what ways does fission differ from mitosis?

A

-no nucleus
-no packing of DNA

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45
Q

How is fission similar to mitosis?

A

-copying of DNA
-pinching as seen in cytokinesis
-two poles –> two daughter cells

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46
Q

True or false: Cell-cycle length varies

A

True

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47
Q

What is the function of the M-phase promoting factor (MPH)?

A

Tells the cell that it can divide

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48
Q

Present in different concentration throughout the cell cycle

A

Cyclin (think cycling, goes up and down)

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49
Q

Kinase that transfers phosphate group from ATP to target protein

A

Cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)

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50
Q

CDK + Cyclin make up ___

A

MPF

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51
Q

When does cyclin peak? When does it start to decrease?

A

M-phase is when cyclin peaks, and decreases when the cell needs to stop cell division and come to a conclusion.

!!! you have to know that cyclin INCREASES in G1 and S phase

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52
Q

With the use of cyclin, the cell cycle is turned on in late ___ and turns off after ___.

A

G2, anaphase

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53
Q

3 Cell-cycle checkpoints

A
  1. G1 checkpoint
  2. G2 checkpoint
  3. M checkpoint x2
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54
Q

Why do we have checkpoints in the cell-cycle?

A

-Make sure the cell is ready for the next phase
-No damaged DNA

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55
Q

What does the G1 checkpoint look for?

A

-Cell size is sufficient
-Nutrients are sufficient
-Social signals are present
-DNA is undamaged

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56
Q

What does the G2 checkpoint look for?

A

-If chromosomes have successfully replicated
-DNA is undamaged
-Activated MPF is present

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57
Q

What does the M-phase checkpoint look for? (part one)

A

-Chromosomes have attached to spindle apparatus
-Chromosomes have properly segregated and MPF is absent

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58
Q

What happens if a checkpoint fails?

A

-Cell can wait for prereqs to be fulfilled
-If DNA is damaged, P53 will pause cell cycle
-if damage is NOT repaired, apoptosis will occur (cell death)

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59
Q

WHAT PROTEIN IS IMPORTANT FOR PAUSING CELL CYCLE (!!!)

A

p53

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60
Q

M-phase checkpoint is between ____ and anaphase (part one) and then anaphase and ___ (part two).

A

metaphase, telophase

61
Q

What does M-phase checkpoint look for? (part two)

A

-Chromosomes have fully separated

62
Q

Which of the following conditions will most likely prevent a cell from passing the G2 checkpoint?

a) Chromosomes have replicated incorrectly
b) Nutrients are adequate
c) Cell has reached a certain minimum size
d) Activated MPF is present

63
Q

Benign tumors

A

-Grow in one location
-Noncancerous and noninvasive

64
Q

Cancer divides in an ___ fashion and ___nearby tissues and other parts of the body.

A

uncontrolled, invade

65
Q

Malignant tumors

A

-Cancerous
-Can spread (metastasis)

66
Q

True or false: Benign tumors cannot become malignant

A

False, they can

67
Q

Cancer cells divide without ___ factors

A

growth

-they can tell themselves to divide
ex: cyclin overproduction

68
Q

Why sexual reproduction and not mitosis?

A

Genetic variation and mitosis can pass on errors

69
Q

When sperm and egg unite to form an individual

A

Fertilization

70
Q

Gametes = ___ =____

A

reproductive cells = sex cells

71
Q

Are gametes haploid or diploid?

A

Haploid, because they contain half the number of chromosomes

72
Q

Cell division to produce gametes

73
Q

Sperm and egg form a ___

74
Q

Each organism has its own number of ___.

A

chromosomes

75
Q

What is a karyotype?

A

Shows all the types chromosomes within an organism

76
Q

Homologous chromosomes may contain different ___ of the same gene.

A

alleles

Gene is the same, allele is different (and gene is in the same location of the chromosome)

77
Q

Two homologs of each chromosome/2 alleles of each gene

78
Q

How many copies of chromosomes 14 in your muscle cells?

79
Q

In ploidy, n stands for what?

A

Distinct types of chromosomes

80
Q

The goal of meiosis is to reduce ____ number

A

chromosome

81
Q

Forming sperm and egg

A

Gametogenesis

82
Q

Which meiosis am I?

Parent cell is diploid and contains a homologous pair of replicated chromosomes

83
Q

Which meiosis am I?

Daughter cells are haploid and contain just one haploid

84
Q

Meiosis starts with diploid parent cell, which contains __ chromosomes, divides into two sets of __ homolog(s)/chromosome(s), and lastly separates in to __ haploids/daughter cells

85
Q

___ restores a diploid set of chromosomes.

A

Fertilization

86
Q

How many copies of chromosome 14 do your egg or sperm cells contain?

87
Q

When does ploidy change in an animal?

A

During the life cycle

88
Q

What are the steps in meiosis 1?

A
  1. Early prophase 1
  2. Late prophase 1
  3. Metaphase 1
  4. Anaphase 1
  5. Telophase 1
89
Q

First division =

90
Q

What happens in early prophase 1?

IMPORTANT S WORDDDD

A

-NUCLEAR ENVELOPE BREAKS DOWN
-Chromosomes condense
-Spindle apparatus forms
-SYNAPSIS (pairing) of homologous chromosomes

91
Q

Bivalent

A

2 homologous pairs

92
Q

Why does pairing of the homologous chromosomes occur in early prophase 1?

A

In order for the homologous chromosomes to stay together in the first division and for crossing over to happen

93
Q

Chiasma is the site of ___ ___.

A

crossing over

94
Q

What happens in late prophase 1?

A

-Chiasmata (crossover points) are visible
-Crossing over is happening
-Nuclear envelope is broken down
-Microtubules attach to kinetochore

95
Q

Does crossing over occur in sister chromatids?

A

No, because they are identical. Crossing over occurs in homologous sister chromatids.

96
Q

What does crossing over produce?

A

Chromosomes with a combination of sperm-derived and egg-derived alleles

97
Q

What happens in metaphase 1?

A

-Paired homologs line up at the metaphase plate
-ALIGNMENT IS RANDOM

98
Q

What is different between metaphase in mitosis and meiosis 1?

A

The alignment in meiosis 1 is RANDOM

99
Q

Independent assortment

A

When the homologs line up independently and assort into genetically varied gametes

100
Q

What happens in anaphase 1?

A

-When homologous chromosomes are separating, moving to opposite
-bivalence is separating

101
Q

Difference between anaphase in mitosis and meiosis 1

A

In mitosis, the sister chromatids are separating and in meiosis 1, the homologous chromosomes are separating.

102
Q

What happens in telophase 1?

A

-Spindle apparatus disassembles
-Cytokinesis: Cell divides
-Chromosomes number is reduced

103
Q

What is the difference between telophase in mitosis and meiosis 1?

A

The nuclear envelope is not reforming in telophase 1 because it will go through another division.

104
Q

4 phases in meiosis 2

A
  1. Prophase 2
  2. Metaphase 2
  3. Anaphase 2
  4. Telophase 2
105
Q

What happens in prophase 2?

A

-Spindle apparatus forms
-Microtubules attach to kinetochores

106
Q

What is different in prophase 2 compared to prophase 1 and prophase in mitosis?

A

-There is NO nuclear envelope to break down (both mitosis AND meiosis 1 have it)

107
Q

What happens in metaphase 2?

A

Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate

108
Q

What happens in anaphase 2?

A

-Sister chromatids separate
-Moving to opposite poles

109
Q

How many cells undergo anaphase 2?

A

2 daughter cells

110
Q

What happens in telophase 2?

A

-Daughter chromosomes are at opposite poles (sister chromosomes are separated)
-Spindle apparatus disassembles
-Cytokinesis (cell division)

111
Q

Does the chromosome number change in telophase 2?

112
Q

Meiosis of one diploid cell results in the production of

a) 2 diploid cells
b) 2 haploid cells
c) 4 diploid cells
d) 4 haploid cells

113
Q

Mitosis produces 2 ___.

114
Q

Meiosis or mitosis

The spindle fiber attachments goes on each side of the chromosome.

The spindle fiber attachments go on the entirety of the homologous chromosome

A

Mitosis, Meiosis (specifically division 1)

115
Q

When do we see unreplicated chromosomes?

116
Q

When does bivalence exist (paired homologous chromosomes)?

A

Prophase 1 and metaphase 1

117
Q

3 ways for genetic variation

A
  1. Crossing over
  2. Independent assortment
  3. Fertilization
118
Q

Crossing over contributes genetic variability between

a) sex chromosomes
b) homologous chromosomes
c) nonhomologous chromosomes
d) sister chromatids

A

B

this is because we need to switch out the same gene (eye for eye)

another correct answer is non-sister chromatids

119
Q

Independent assortment occurs during

a) fertilization
b) prophase 2
c) prophase 1
d) metaphase 1

A

D, chromosomes have to be lined up

120
Q

Nondisjunction

A

Chromosomes are not separating correctly

121
Q

When can nondisjunction occur?

A

Anaphase 1/when homologous chromosomes separate
Anaphase 2/when sister chromatids separate

122
Q

Nondisjunction leads to errors in chromosome ___

123
Q

Why can errors/nondisjunction happen?

A

-Random
-Mother’s age

124
Q

Which of these statements is incorrect concerning homologous chromosomes?

a) Homologous chromosomes separate during anaphase 1
b) Homologous chromosomes undergo crossing over in prophase 1
c) Homologous chromosomes have identical alleles before crossing over
d) 4 sister chromatids are present for each set of homologous chromosomes at prophase 1

125
Q

Alternative versions of individual genes

126
Q

Location of gene on chromosome

127
Q

Why did Mendel use peas?

A

-Quick reproduction
-Cheap
-Simple genes

128
Q

Transmission of traits from parent to offspring

A

Hereditary

129
Q

Polymorphic traits have __ or more forms

130
Q

Self-fertilization creates __

A

pure breds

131
Q

Inheritance of any genes NOT on a sex chromosome

A

Autosomal inheritance

132
Q

Phenotype v.s. Genotype

A

Phenotype = visible traits
Genotype = listing of alleles

133
Q

Offspring of the OG cross

A

F1 generation

134
Q

Offspring of the crossing F1s

A

F2 generation

135
Q

Simple dominance ratios crossing two heterozygous

A

3 (dominant) :1 (recessive)

136
Q

Dihybrid cross ratio crossing two heterozygous (RrYy x RrYy)

137
Q

Meiosis explains the principles of ___.

A

segregation

when homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis 1/ when independent assortment happens

138
Q

If an individual is heterozygous for both hair color (Hh) and eye color (Ee), which of the following statements is true about the gametes produced by this individual?

a) The individuals somatic cells will contain HE or he
b) The individual can make gametes that contain only HE or he
c) The individual can make gametes that contain only H, E, e, or h
d) The individual can make gametes that contain HE, He, hE, or he

139
Q

Two important terms applying to drosophilas

1) Wild type
2) Mutants

A

1) Most common phenotype
2) Organism with traits caused by mutation

140
Q

Red eyes are __ and white eyes are __

A

wild-type, mutant

141
Q

Two crosses to determine if it’s sex-linked and change the phenotype of each sex

A

Reciprocal cross

142
Q

Reciprocal cross confirms that eye color in drosophilas are ___

143
Q

Linkages genes are located on the same ___.

A

chromosome

144
Q

True or false: Crossing over occurs more often between genes that are far apart

145
Q

Recombination is produced by ___.

A

crossing over

146
Q

Incomplete dominance v.s Codominance

A

Incomplete = blending
Codominance = both traits show up

147
Q

Pleiotropy is when one ___ affects many traits.

148
Q

___ is when one trait is influenced by alleles of two or more different genes. The expression of one gene can influence the expression of another.

A

Epistasis

GENE INTERACTION

149
Q

___ traits often have a normal distribution (bell curve)

A

Quantitative

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