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Cognitive Psychology > Chapter 11 > Flashcards

Chapter 11 Flashcards

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1
Q

Thinking

A

requires you to go beyond the information you were given, so that you can reach a goal. The goal may be a solution, a belief, or a decision.

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2
Q

problem solving

A

refers to the processes necessary to reach a goal, typi- cally in situations where the solution is not immediately obvious.

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3
Q

initial state

A

describes the situation at the beginning of the problem. In this case, your initial state might be, “I need to reach Jim tonight”.

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4
Q

goal state

A

when you solve the problem. Here, it could be, “I have Jim’s last name and his e-mail address.”

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5
Q

obstacles

A

describe the restrictions that make it dificult to proceed from the initial state to the goal state

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6
Q

understanding

A

you have con- structed a well-organized mental representation of the problem, based on both the information provided in the problem and your own previous experience.

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7
Q

Problem representation

A

refers to the way you translate the elements of the problem into a different format.

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8
Q

an effective way in representing an abstract problem

A

symbols

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9
Q

matrix

A

a grid consisting of rows and columns; it that shows all possible combinations of items

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10
Q

hierarchical tree diagram

A

a figure that uses a tree-like structure to show various possible options in a problem.

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11
Q

situated cognition approach

A

we often use helpful information in our immediate environment to create spatial representations.

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12
Q

embodied cognition approach

A

we often use our own body and our own motor actions, in order to express our abstract thoughts and knowledge

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13
Q

ecological validity

A

if the conditions in which the research is conducted are similar to the natural setting in which the results will be applied.

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14
Q

algorithm

A

a method that will always produce a solution to the problem, although the process can sometimes be inefficient

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15
Q

exhaustive search

A

you try out all possible answers using a speciied system.

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16
Q

heuristic

A

is a general rule that is usually correct

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17
Q

analogy approach

A

in problem solving, you employ a solution to a similar, earlier problem to help you solve a new problem

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18
Q

problem isomorphs

A

a set of problems that have the same underlying struc- tures and solutions, but different speciic details.

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19
Q

surface features

A

speciic objects and terms used in the question.

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20
Q

structural features

A

the underlying core that they must understand in order to solve the problem correctly.

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21
Q

subproblems

A

smaller problems

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22
Q

means-ends heuristic

A

requires you to identify the “ends” (or inal result) that you want and then igure out the “means” or methods that you will use to reach those ends

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23
Q

computer simulation

A

a computer program that will perform a task in the same way that a human would.

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24
Q

General Problem Solver (GPS)

A

is a program whose basic strategy is means-ends analysis.

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25
Q

hill-climbing heuristic

A

you reach a choice point—you consistently choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal (take the easy road)

26
Q

how we can use situated cognition?

A

Street smarts, what we can learn from practical use.

27
Q

Bottom-up processing

A

emphasizes the infor- mation about the stimulus, as registered on our sensory receptors.

28
Q

top-down processing

A

emphasizes our concepts, expectations, and memory, which we have acquired from past experience.

29
Q

expertise

A

demonstrates consistently exceptional skill and perfor- mance on representative tasks for a particular area

30
Q

how experts differ from novices?

A
  • better knowledge base
  • better memory in their area of expertise
  • problem solving strategies
  • speed and accuracy
  • metacognitive skill
31
Q

mental set

A

you keep trying the same solution you used in previous problems, even though you could solve the problem by using a different, easier method.

32
Q

fixed mindset

A

you believe that you possess a certain amount of intelligence and other skills, and no amount of effort can help you perform better.

33
Q

growth mindset

A

you believe that you can cultivate your intelligence and other skills (try to keep an open mind)

34
Q

functional fixedness

A

functional fixed-ness means that we tend to assign stable (or “fixed”) functions to an object. As a result, we fail to think about the features of this object that might be useful in helping us solve a problem.

35
Q

problem of functional fixedness

A

overactive top down processing

36
Q

gender stereotypes

A

are the beliefs and opinions that we associate with females and males

37
Q

stereotype threat (Margaret Shih)

A

If you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype and you think about your membership in that group your performance may suffer

38
Q

how stereotypes affect us?

A
  • produces high arousal (like too much coffee), interferes
    with working memory.
  • thought suppression: uses a great deal of working memory
39
Q

insight problem

A

the problem initially seems impossible to solve, but then an alternative approach suddenly bursts into your consciousness. (lightbulb)

40
Q

noninsight problem

A

you solve the problem gradually, by using your memory, reasoning skills, and a routine set of strategies

41
Q

difference between insight and non

A

confidence building

  • insight: towards the end
  • non insight: gradually
42
Q

creativity

A

requires solutions that are both novel and useful

43
Q

divergent production

A

the number of different responses made to a test item.

44
Q

convergent production

A

asks the test-taker to supply a single, best response, and the researchers measure the quality of that response.

45
Q

nature of creativity

A

requires divergent and convergent thinking. associated with different regions of the brain.

46
Q

extrinsic motivation

A

or the motivation to work on a task, not because you ind it enjoyable but in order to earn a promised reward or to win a competition.

47
Q

intrinsic motivation

A

the motivation to work on tasks for their own sake, because you ind them interesting, exciting, or personally challenging

48
Q

self-eficacy

A

the belief that you have the ability to organize and carry out a speciic task

49
Q

perseverance

A

which is the ability to keep working on a task, even when you encounter obstacles.

50
Q

The first step in problem solving involves

A

constructing a mental representation of the problem.

51
Q

Ways to represent a problem are

A

symbols.

matrices.

diagrams.

52
Q

Supporters of a situated-cognition approach argue that a person’s ability to solve a problem is closely linked to the:

A

specific context in which he or she learned to solve that kind of problem.

53
Q

A problem-solving strategy in which a person ignores some alternatives and only explores those that are most likely to produce a solution is called:

A

a heuristic.

54
Q

A barrier to the use of an analogy approach to problem solving is that people tend to:

A

focus more on the superficial content of a problem than on its abstract, underlying meanings.

55
Q

A problem-solver divided a problem into several subproblems, and then he tried to reduce the difference between the initial state and the goal state for each of the subproblems. Which strategy he use?

A

means-end analysis

56
Q

A recent (2007) study of university students in the United States, Brazil, and India revealed that the students:

A

typically chose the analogy strategy for solving problems.

57
Q

Compared with novices, experts generally have

A

greater probability of using parallel processing.

58
Q

As Chapter 11 discussed, attention is important during problem solving because:

A

divided attention may arise if you have competing thoughts while trying to solve
a problem.

59
Q

Suppose you have just read over an algebra problem, and you have now created an
internal representation of the important information. According to the discussion
of problem solving, you have mastered the stage called:

A

understanding.

60
Q

When people have a growth mindset, they are more likely to believe that:

A

people can improve their problem-solving skills by challenging themselves.

Cognitive Psychology (12 decks)

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