Chapter 11 Flashcards
Thinking
requires you to go beyond the information you were given, so that you can reach a goal. The goal may be a solution, a belief, or a decision.
problem solving
refers to the processes necessary to reach a goal, typi- cally in situations where the solution is not immediately obvious.
initial state
describes the situation at the beginning of the problem. In this case, your initial state might be, “I need to reach Jim tonight”.
goal state
when you solve the problem. Here, it could be, “I have Jim’s last name and his e-mail address.”
obstacles
describe the restrictions that make it dificult to proceed from the initial state to the goal state
understanding
you have con- structed a well-organized mental representation of the problem, based on both the information provided in the problem and your own previous experience.
Problem representation
refers to the way you translate the elements of the problem into a different format.
an effective way in representing an abstract problem
symbols
matrix
a grid consisting of rows and columns; it that shows all possible combinations of items
hierarchical tree diagram
a figure that uses a tree-like structure to show various possible options in a problem.
situated cognition approach
we often use helpful information in our immediate environment to create spatial representations.
embodied cognition approach
we often use our own body and our own motor actions, in order to express our abstract thoughts and knowledge
ecological validity
if the conditions in which the research is conducted are similar to the natural setting in which the results will be applied.
algorithm
a method that will always produce a solution to the problem, although the process can sometimes be inefficient
exhaustive search
you try out all possible answers using a speciied system.
heuristic
is a general rule that is usually correct
analogy approach
in problem solving, you employ a solution to a similar, earlier problem to help you solve a new problem
problem isomorphs
a set of problems that have the same underlying struc- tures and solutions, but different speciic details.
surface features
speciic objects and terms used in the question.
structural features
the underlying core that they must understand in order to solve the problem correctly.
subproblems
smaller problems
means-ends heuristic
requires you to identify the “ends” (or inal result) that you want and then igure out the “means” or methods that you will use to reach those ends
computer simulation
a computer program that will perform a task in the same way that a human would.
General Problem Solver (GPS)
is a program whose basic strategy is means-ends analysis.
hill-climbing heuristic
you reach a choice point—you consistently choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal (take the easy road)
how we can use situated cognition?
Street smarts, what we can learn from practical use.
Bottom-up processing
emphasizes the infor- mation about the stimulus, as registered on our sensory receptors.
top-down processing
emphasizes our concepts, expectations, and memory, which we have acquired from past experience.
expertise
demonstrates consistently exceptional skill and perfor- mance on representative tasks for a particular area
how experts differ from novices?
- better knowledge base
- better memory in their area of expertise
- problem solving strategies
- speed and accuracy
- metacognitive skill
mental set
you keep trying the same solution you used in previous problems, even though you could solve the problem by using a different, easier method.
fixed mindset
you believe that you possess a certain amount of intelligence and other skills, and no amount of effort can help you perform better.
growth mindset
you believe that you can cultivate your intelligence and other skills (try to keep an open mind)
functional fixedness
functional fixed-ness means that we tend to assign stable (or “fixed”) functions to an object. As a result, we fail to think about the features of this object that might be useful in helping us solve a problem.
problem of functional fixedness
overactive top down processing
gender stereotypes
are the beliefs and opinions that we associate with females and males
stereotype threat (Margaret Shih)
If you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype and you think about your membership in that group your performance may suffer
how stereotypes affect us?
- produces high arousal (like too much coffee), interferes
with working memory. - thought suppression: uses a great deal of working memory
insight problem
the problem initially seems impossible to solve, but then an alternative approach suddenly bursts into your consciousness. (lightbulb)
noninsight problem
you solve the problem gradually, by using your memory, reasoning skills, and a routine set of strategies
difference between insight and non
confidence building
- insight: towards the end
- non insight: gradually
creativity
requires solutions that are both novel and useful
divergent production
the number of different responses made to a test item.
convergent production
asks the test-taker to supply a single, best response, and the researchers measure the quality of that response.
nature of creativity
requires divergent and convergent thinking. associated with different regions of the brain.
extrinsic motivation
or the motivation to work on a task, not because you ind it enjoyable but in order to earn a promised reward or to win a competition.
intrinsic motivation
the motivation to work on tasks for their own sake, because you ind them interesting, exciting, or personally challenging
self-eficacy
the belief that you have the ability to organize and carry out a speciic task
perseverance
which is the ability to keep working on a task, even when you encounter obstacles.
The first step in problem solving involves
constructing a mental representation of the problem.
Ways to represent a problem are
symbols.
matrices.
diagrams.
Supporters of a situated-cognition approach argue that a person’s ability to solve a problem is closely linked to the:
specific context in which he or she learned to solve that kind of problem.
A problem-solving strategy in which a person ignores some alternatives and only explores those that are most likely to produce a solution is called:
a heuristic.
A barrier to the use of an analogy approach to problem solving is that people tend to:
focus more on the superficial content of a problem than on its abstract, underlying meanings.
A problem-solver divided a problem into several subproblems, and then he tried to reduce the difference between the initial state and the goal state for each of the subproblems. Which strategy he use?
means-end analysis
A recent (2007) study of university students in the United States, Brazil, and India revealed that the students:
typically chose the analogy strategy for solving problems.
Compared with novices, experts generally have
greater probability of using parallel processing.
As Chapter 11 discussed, attention is important during problem solving because:
divided attention may arise if you have competing thoughts while trying to solve
a problem.
Suppose you have just read over an algebra problem, and you have now created an
internal representation of the important information. According to the discussion
of problem solving, you have mastered the stage called:
understanding.
When people have a growth mindset, they are more likely to believe that:
people can improve their problem-solving skills by challenging themselves.
