Chapter 10

Question 1

Instrumental Traits

Answer 1

• personality characteristics that reflect active involvement with and influence over the environment
• stereotypically associated with men
• independent, aggressive, not excitable, leader, ambitious, mechanical aptitude

Question 2

Expressive Traits

Answer 2

• personality characteristics that reflect emotional functioning and a focus on interpersonal relations
• stereotypically associated with women
• ex: kind, cries easily, creative, considerate, gentle, needs approval, excitable

Question 3

Start of gender stereotyping of activities familiar to the child:

Answer 3

• 24 months in girls

- 31 months in boys

Question 4

Gender stereotypes in preschoolers

Answer 4

• by age 4 children have an extensive knowledge of gender-stereotyped activities
• don’t understand that not all people conform to stereotypes
• eg told ab a boy named Tommy who plays with girls and liked ironing, they still say Tommy will prefer masculine toys

Question 5

Early Childhood - Development of Gender Stereotyping

Answer 5

• stereotypes begin around 18 months
• strengthen and become rigid through early childhood
• Parents: encourage gender-specific play and behaviour, reinforce dependence in girls and independence in boys, language indirectly teaches roles

Question 6

Social Learning Theory (gender identity in early childhood)

Answer 6

gender-typing behaviour leads to gender identity

Question 7

Cognitive-Developmental Theory (gender identity in early childhood)

Answer 7

self-perceptions (gender constancy) come before behaviour

Question 8

Parenting and Gender Typing

Answer 8

• parents are equally warm w sons and daughters
• daughters encouraged to play w dolls, dress up, or help adults
• sons encouraged to engage in rough and tumble play or block building
• fathers more likely to treat sons and daughters differently (eg push son to try something scary but accept dependence and fear of daughter)

Question 9

Age children begin to prefer playing w same-sex peers

Answer 9

2-3 years

Question 10

Lawrence Kohlberg - Cognitive Theories of Gender Identity

Answer 10

• gender identity develops gradually
• child develops understanding of gender labelling, gender stability, and gender consistency
• once they understand all 3 they master gender constancy

Question 11

Gender labelling

Answer 11

• first element learned in Kohlberg’s theory of gender identity
• 2 or 3 years
• most children understand that they are either boy or girl and label themselves accordingly

Question 12

Gender stability

Answer 12

• second element learned in Kohlberg’s theory of gender identity
• preschool years
• begin to understand that gender is typically stable, boys become men and girls become women
• but will think a girl with short hair will become a boy and boy who plays w dolls will become a girl

Question 13

Gender consistency

Answer 13

• third element learned in Kohlberg’s theory of gender identity
• between 4 and 7 years
• most believe that maleness and femaleness do not change over situations or according to personal wishes
• understand that gender is unaffected by clothing a child wears or toys they like

Question 14

Gender-schema theory

Answer 14

• once children learn their gender, they pay more attention to objects and activities that are considered gender appropriate
• gender aschematic child: follows preferences more, not as sensitive to whether activities are perceived as being for boys or for girls

Question 15

Biological influences on gender identity

Answer 15

• amount of testosterone in amniotic fluid predicts preference for masculine sex-typed activities
• girls w CAH exposed to lots of androgen during prenatal dev. and tend to prefer masculine activities and male playmates
• gender identity is biopsychosocial – affected by lots of factors!

Question 16

CAH

Answer 16

• Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
• adrenal glands (on top of kidneys) produce corticosteroids and sex hormones
• in CAH, faulty gene means corticosteroids can’t be produced
• adrenals grow in attempt to produce more corticosteroids, result is just lots more sex hormones
• symptoms result from excess of sex hormones and lack of corticosteroids

Question 17

Hormone specialist

Answer 17

Endocrinologist

Question 18

Self-esteem in early childhood

Answer 18

• at its peak during preschool years

- increases through abilities, play, interactions with caregivers (Erikson)

Question 19

Family as a system of interacting forces

Answer 19

• kinda like ecological systems theory
• parents influence children directly and indirectly
• parents influenced by each other and outside forces
• children influence how parents interact with them

Question 20

Authoritative parenting style

Answer 20

• high involvement, high control
• explain rules and encourage discussion
• try to find compromises that enable children’s requests but in healthy ways
• ex. child asks for cookie, is allowed to have one but only after supper

Question 21

Authoritarian parenting style

Answer 21

• low involvement, high control
• lay down rules and expect them to be followed without question
• wish to cultivate hard work, respect, and obedience
• children’s needs or wishes are not valued

Question 22

Indulgent-Permissive parenting style

Answer 22

• high involvement, low control
• accept children’s behaviour and rarely provide consequences
• eg lets child have a snack just bc the child wants it

Question 23

Indifferent-Uninvolved parenting style

Answer 23

• low involvement, low control
• provide for child’s basic physical needs but little else
• avoid spending time/becoming emotionally involved with child

Question 24

Methods of learning by observing parental behaviour

Answer 24

• counterimitation: learning what should not be done
• disinhibition: tendency to exhibit bold or aggressive behaviours in unfamiliar situations
• inhibition: decrease in a behaviour

Question 25

5 types of grandparents

Answer 25

• formal grandparents (strong interest but hands-off attitude)
• fun-seeking grandparents (primary source of fun, avoid serious interactions)
• distant grandparents (little contact except for holidays/family celebrations)
• dispensing-family-wisdom grandparents (provide information and advice to parents and grandchildren)
• surrogate-parent grandparents (assume many responsibilities of a parent)

Question 26

3 primary parenting objectives around the world

Answer 26

• looking out for children’s safety and health
• preparing children for productive adulthood
• sharing cultural values with children

Question 27

Negative reinforcement trap

Answer 27

• reinforcing the very behaviours that are being targeted for elimination
• 1: parent tells child to do something they don’t want to do
• 2: child argues, complains, or whines for a long time
• 3: parent gives in in order to stop intolerable behaviour
• this teaches children that arguing works bc they are rewarded for it

Question 28

Bullying

Answer 28

• starts at end of preschool years
• unprovoked aggression, which has as its sole goal gaining power over another through social, verbal, or physical harassment

Question 29

Development of self-control - Claire Kopp

Answer 29

• Infancy: babies learn ab self-soothing through parental regulatory activities (like distracting infant from upsetting stimulus)
• Phase 1: around 1 year, infants become aware that ppl impose demands on them and that they must react accordingly
• Phase 2: around 2 years, toddlers have internalized some of the controls imposed by others, can have some self-control in parent’s absence
• Phase 3: around 3 years, children can devise ways to regulate own behaviour