CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
Which statement about the mind focuses on its role in cognitive processes, that is, what the mind does?
a. I haven’t made up my mind about what movie to go to.
b. An individual must be of sound mind in order to lawfully sign a will or contract.
c. The UNCF, which provides scholarships to black students, uses the slogan “mind is a terrible thing to waste.”
d. Mathematician John Nash had a brilliant mind although he struggled with schizophrenia.
A
a. I haven’t made up my mind about what movie to go to.
2
Q
Restaurant reviewers often describe their meals in terms of their sensory experiences - the glistening of the melted sugar on top of a crème brûlée, the crack as it is broken, the smooth, warm custard, and its eggy, vanilla richness. Reviewers who focus on this combination of sensory experiences might be described as _____.
a. behaviorists
b. functionalists
c. structuralists
d. analysts
A
c. structuralists
3
Q
Ebbinghaus used _____ to study the mind.
a. analytic introspection
b. memory for nonsense syllables
c. animal models like pigeons
d. primitive neural recording methods
A
b. memory for nonsense syllables
4
Q
Watson objected to the method of introspection in part because it _____.
a. was only suitable for research using animals
b. could only be used in a limited number of situations
c. produced highly variable results from person to person
d. focused on quantitative rather than qualitative outcomes
A
c. produced highly variable results from person to person
5
Q
Little Albert, a nine-month-old-boy, learned to be afraid of a rat when a loud noise was made every time a rat (which Albert had originally liked) came close to the child. Little Albert learned to fear the rat through _____ conditioning.
a. operant
b. instrumental
c. social
d. classical
A
d. classical
6
Q
By allowing rats to explore a maze without providing food reward and then rewarding them for going to a particular place in the maze (as opposed to turning in a particular direction), Tolman was able to demonstrate the existence of what he referred as _____.
a. schemas
b. cognitive maps
c. memory traces
d. heuristics
A
b. cognitive maps
7
Q
Which approach to cognitive psychology analyzes the operation of the mind in terms of a sequence of stages?
a. analytic introspection
b. structuralism
c. information processing
d. behaviorism
A
c. information processing
8
Q
Timo has developed a computer system that scans mammograms, looking for abnormalities that might be indicative of cancer in the same way that radiologists review the images. Timo’s work is best described as being in the field of _____.
a. information processing
b. concept formation
c. cognitive networks
d. artificial intelligence
A
d. artificial intelligence
9
Q
In his paper “The Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two,” George Miller argued that there were limits to the _____.
a. ability of humans to study the mind
b. programming possibilities of artificial intelligence
c. useful conceptualizations in cognitive psychology
d. information processing capacity of humans
A
d. information processing capacity of humans
10
Q
Melinda studies vision, focusing on the brain’s pulvinar nucleus, the lateral geniculate nucleus and superior colliculus. Melinda most likely makes use of a(n) _____ model.
a. structural
b. process
c. integrative
d. systems
A
a. structural
11
Q
Tulving proposed a model of memory in which long term memory had three components: episodic memory, semantic memory, and procedural memory. Tulving proposed a(n) _____ model.
a. integrative
b. systems
c. process
d. structural
A
c. process
12
Q
According to your text, the biggest challenge of research is _____.
a. gaining the approval of the institutional review board
b. conducting the statistical analyses
c. picking the right questions to ask
d. getting the research published in a journal
A
c. picking the right questions to ask
13
Q
While George takes the bus home, he is thinking about how to resolve a difficult issue at work. This example particularly highlights the value of ___.
a. working to solve a problem
b. visualizing
c. remembering
d. making a decision
A
a. working to solve a problem
14
Q
The statement “If you put your mind to it, I’m sure you can solve that math problem” highlights how the mind can be used ___.
a. in memory
b. making decisions or considering possibilities
c. as a problem-solver
d. to show normal functioning
A
b. making decisions or considering possibilities
15
Q
Joe and Meg are doing a study in psychology. Joe is asked to push a button as soon as he sees a red light whereas Meg is asked to push a red button if she sees a red light and a green button if she sees a green light. From the information, ___ appear to be involved in a task measuring choice reaction time.
a. only Joe
b. only Meg
c. neither Joe nor Meg
d. both Joe and Meg
A
b. only Meg
16
Q
Which one of these early pioneers in cognitive psychology was the first to undertake quantitative measurements of mental processes?
a. Donders
b. Ebbinghaus
c. James
d. Wundt
A
b. Ebbinghaus
17
Q
___ founded behaviorism which ___ the study of inner mental processes.
a. John Watson ; rejected
b. John Watson ; accepted
c. William James ; rejected
d. William James ; accepted
A
a. John Watson ; rejected
18
Q
An animal might learn the general conception of a maze through the use of ___.
a. the savings curve
b. analytic introspection
c. a cognitive map
d. artificial intelligence
A
c. a cognitive map
19
Q
Noam Chomsky argued that language development was primarily determined by ___.
a. reinforcement
b. imitation
c. inborn biological processes
d. cultural differences
A
c. inborn biological processes
20
Q
The cognitive revolution, which marked a rebirth of the study of the mind, began in the ___.
a. 1920s
b. 1950s
c. 1960s
d. 1990s
A
b. 1950s
21
Q
The predominant theme of the information-processing approach holds that the operation of the mind occurs ___.
a. only through observed behaviors
b. via unconscious proceses
c. merely through reinforcement
d. in a number of stages
A
d. in a number of stages
22
Q
In a flow diagram of the mind, messages first enter a(n) ___.
a. unit
b. filter
c. detector
d. cognitive map
A
b. filter
23
Q
In a classic paper from the 1950s, George Miller argued that the information-processing of the mind is ___.
a. unlimited
b. limited to about seven items
c. limited to about 100 items
d. limited to about one million items
A
b. limited to about seven items
24
Q
The structural model refers to representations of ___.
a. mental configurations
b. physical structures
c. real or imagined structures
d. the brain
A
b. physical structures
25
Of the following brain structures, the one that is LEAST associated with the pain matrix is the ___.
a. medulla
b. hippocampus
c. amygdala
d. thalamus
a. medulla
26
The process model refers to representations of ___.
a. processes involved in cognitive mechanisms
b. physical structures
c. real or imagined structures
d. the brain
a. processes involved in cognitive mechanisms
27
If you are thinking about experiences about a previous vacation, then you are most likely making use of ___ memories.
a. sensory
b. procedural
c. semantic
d. episodic
d. episodic
28
what is cognitive psychology?
the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mind. It attempts to explain how humans perform cognitive actives.
29
Examples of cognitive activities?
remembering something
seeing objects in your surroundings
understanding what is happening in a situation
solving problems
30
Why is cognitive psychology analogous to physics?
in the sense that it is foundational to the other social sciences
31
The basic mechanisms in human thought are important in understanding what?
the types of behaviour studied by other social sciences
32
the mind treats and controls mental functions such as?
| PAMELDTR
```
perception
attention
memory
emotions
language
deciding
thinking
reasoning
```
33
The mind is a system that creates representations of the world so that we can?
act within it to achieve our goals
34
2 precursors to cognitive psychology?
Aristotle and plato
epistemology, theory of ideas and their relation to human action
35
When did experimental psychology begin?
19th century germany
36
What did Franciscus Donders contribute?
response time analysis & method of subtraction
37
What did Hermann von Helmholtz contribute?
perception, and unconscious inference
38
What did Wilhelm Wundt contribute?
analytic introspection and analysis of conscious experience, RT experiments
39
What did Hermann Ebbinghaus contribute?
experimental study of memory
40
What did James (1890) contribute?
first psychology textbook: principles of pscyhology
41
Where did psychology continue to be studied during the behaviourist period?
Europe
42
When did the behaviourist period take place?
1920 - 1960
43
Why did behaviourism lose its grip on American psychology during 1960s?
- Learning without reinforcement: rats that explore a maze with no reinforcement show learning of the maze when they are later rewarded for running the maze
- Problematic Results: behaviourism couldn't explain what scientists wanted to understand (e.g., perception, language, attention, reasoning)
44
When was the revival of cognitive psychology?
1950 - 1970
45
What is mental chronometry?
measuring how long a cognitive process takes
46
What is Reaction-time (RT)?
Experiment (a.k.a a response time experiment) which measures the interval between stimulus presentation and the response to the stimulus. It measures how long it takes a person to make a decision
47
What is Simple RT task?
participant pushes a button quickly after a light appears
48
What is choice RT task?
participant pushes one button if light is on the right side and a different button if the light in on the left side
49
What is Donder's goal?
To measure how long it takes a person to decide which button to press in the choice RT task
50
What is the modern version of Donder's experiment?
on the computer using a keyboard the participant pushes a button quickly if the light appears, or if it appears on the right or left.
51
Why does the choice RT task take longer than the Simple RT task?
Mental response takes longer for the behavioural response.
in the simple RT task, the subject does not have to decide how to respond
in the choice RT task, the subject has to decide which response is appropriate
decision time is longer in the choice RT task
52
What is the method of subtraction in the RT tests used for?
used to infer how long a mental process takes when the process is not directly observable.
53
What is the method of subtraction an example of?
a behavioural research method
54
mental responses cannot be measured directly from RT tests but can?
be inferred from the participants behaviour
55
What is one of the first cognitive psychology experiments?
Donder's method of subtraction
56
What does Donders method of subtraction illustrate?
mental processes cannot be measured directly, but must be inferred from behaviour
57
Method of subtraction is a valid measure of mental duration if?
all of the assumptions are valid
58
What are activations?
regions of significant change from a control condition to a test condition
59
Example of when activation is used to see regions of significant change from a control condition to a test condition?
Test condition: subject views picture
Control condition: subject fixates a blank screen
Brain images show regions of a significant activation when comparing test condition to control condition
60
When are subtraction methods used in modern?
fMRI studies
61
Activation can be measured using?
fMRI scans
62
What did H.L.F von Helmhotlz's concluded about unconscious inference?
some of our perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions we make about the environment
we infer much of what we know about the world
63
Why is the idea of unconscious inference important?
unconscious inferences contribute in many ways to the formation of our perception and beliefs
cognitive psychology attempts to reveal the processes by which such inferences are made
64
What was Wundt's main reproach?
how sensations combine to form percepts
65
what was Wundt's approach?
Structuralism
66
What is Structuralism?
our overall experience is determined by combing elements of experience called sensations "periodic table of the mind"
67
What was Wundt's method?
Analytic introspection
68
What is Analytic introspection?
participants are trained to describe experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli
69
In the video, Dr Barslaou discusses how we think about ideas such as "chairs", emphasising that people tend to think about particular types of chairs in particular situations and with particular accompanying mental states. Which research method involves the use of trained subjects who describe their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli?
A) analytic introspection
B) Puzzle boxes
C) Ebbinghaus's "savings" method
D) Donder's reaction time paradigm
A) analytic introspection
in analytic introspection, trained subjects describe their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli
70
Dr Barsalou explain that ____ enables us to produce a wide variety of representations of a particular idea in many different situations.
A) deviations
B) correlations
C) Concepts
D) determinants
C) Concepts
Dr. Barsalou notes that concepts are not fixed, but instead, produce a wide variety of representations of a particular idea in many different situations
71
Dr. Barsalou uses ___ to demonstrate that looking at pictures of highly rewarding food results in brain activity in the areas involved with the experience of actual taste.
A) computer addicted tomography
B) electroencephalography
C) MIBG scanning
D) function magnetic resonance imaging
D) function magnetic resonance imaging
Dr. Barsalou uses functional magnetic resonance imaging in his research, a non-invasive brain scan that allows him to identify areas of brain activation
72
what is Ebbinghaus's savings curve (forgetting curve)?
read a list of nonsense syllables aloud many times to determine number of repetitions necessary to repeat list without errors
73
What is the equation for Ebbinghaus's savings curve?
savings = (original time to learn the list) - (time to relearn the list after a delay)
74
What does longer delays in Ebbinghaus's savings curve indicate?
smaller savings
75
What does Ebbinghaus's savings curve show?
it shows savings as a function of retention interval
76
What does the decrease In savings (remembering) indicate in Ebbinghaus's savings curve?
the decrease in savings (remembering) with increasing delays indicates that forgetting occurs rapidly over the first two days and then occurs more slowly after that
77
Memory could be quantified and able to describe property of mind: TRUE or FALSE?
true
78
What were William James's observations based on?
observations based on the functions of his own mind, not experiments
79
What was one main observation William James made?
he observed that paying attention to one thing involves withdrawing from other things
80
What procedures did Donders conduct?
simple reaction time vs choice reaction time
81
What procedures did Wundt conduct?
analytic introspection
82
What procedures did Ebbinghaus conduct?
savings method to measure forgetting
83
What procedures did James conduct?
no experiments; reported observations of his own experience
84
Who founded behaviourism?
John Watson
85
Did Watson focus on observable behaviour or consciousness?
observable behaviour
86
Behaviourism is purely a objective, experimental branch of natural science: TRUE or FALSE?
TRUE
87
What is the little albert experiment?
Pair a loud noise
classical conditioning: how paring one stimulus (e.g., loud noise presented) with another, previously neutral stimulus (e.g., rat) causes changes in the response to the neutral stimulus
classical conditioning can be used to create a phobia.
88
How is the little Albert experiment similar to pavlov's experiment?
pairing beer with food, measure dogs salivation
89
Did B.F. Skinner contribute operant or classical conditioning?
operant conditioning
90
What does B.F. Skinners operant conditioning demonstrate?
how behaviour is strengthened by the presentation of positive reinforcers (e.g., food/social approval) or withdrawal of negative reinforces (e.g., shock/social refection)
91
What is classical conditioning?
a type of learning that happens unconsciously
an automatic conditioned response is paired with a specific stimulus. this creates a behaviour
92
What is operant conditioning?
a learning process whereby deliberate behaviours are reinforced through positive and negative consequences
93
What did jean Piaget contribute?
genetic epistemology
94
What did Lev Vygotsky contribute?
cognitive development and eduction
95
What did Sir Frederick Bartlett contribute?
constructive memory processes
96
Why did Behaviourists lose its grip on American psychology during the 1960s?
problematic results
deficiencies of behaviourism
97
What were the problematic results that resulted in behaviourists losing their grip on American psychology during the 1960s?
learning without responding: rats are temporarily paralysed with atropine can learn the layout of a maze from being wheeled around the maze
learning without reinforcement: rats that explore a maze with no reinforcement show learning of the maze when they are later rewarded for running the maze
98
What were the deficiencies of behaviourism that resulted in behaviourists losing their grip on American psychology during the 1960s?
behaviourist theories could not provide insightful explanations or a productive research strategy for studying obvious important behaviour such as:
- human language production and comprehension and language learning
- human problem solving; human decision making
- human attention and perception
99
What did Edward Chance Tolman used behaviour to do? and how?
to infer mental processes by training rats to find food in a four-armed maze
100
What did Tolman believe about rats?
he believed that rats had created a cognitive map of the maze and were navigating to a specific arm where they previously found food
101
did Tolmans belief about rates support behaviourism interpretation?
no it did not support behaviourism interpretation
102
what did Skinner vs. Chomsky argue about children?
Skinner: argued children learn language through operant conditioning
- children imitate speech they hear
- correct speech is rewarded
Chomsky: argued children do not only learn language through imitation and reinforcement
- children say things they have never heard and can not be imitating
- children say things that are incorrect and have not been rewarded for
103
what are examples of alternative approaches the came along that were more promising because behaviourism couldn't explain what scientists wanted to understand?
structural models
computer models
change of focus to experimentation on human information processing
104
According to behaviourists, is it unrealistic to postulate unobserved psychological processes in a psychological theory?
YES
105
According to cognitivists, is it unrealistic to postulate unobserved psychological processes in a psychological theory?
NO
106
when did the cognitive revolution take place?
1950s
107
What is the cognitive revolution?
shift in psychology from behaviourists stimulus-response relationships to an approach that attempts to explain behaviour in terms of the mind.
108
how do flow diagrams for computers work?
information is received by input processor -> store in a memory unit -> processed by an arithmetic unit -> output
109
what is the information-processing approach?
traces sequences of mental operations involved in cognition
a way to study the mind created from insights associated with the digital computer
110
who conducted the dichotic listening experiment?
Colin Cherry
111
how did Colin Cherry conduct the dichotic listening experiment?
- present subject with 2 audio messages (1 left ear, 1 right ear)
- Focus on the message (attended message) and ignore the other (unattended message)
- Result: hear sounds of unattended message but unaware of the content
112
What did Donald Broadbent contribute to flow diagrams?
flow diagram represents what happens as a person directs attention to one stimulus
113
how did Donald Broadbent conduct his flow diagram the represents what happens as a person directs attention to one stimulus?
Input (sound of both attended and & unattended messages) -> filter lets through attended message and filters out unattended message -> detector records information through filter
114
What did Donald Broadbent's flow diagram provide?
a way to analyse the operation of mind in terms of sequences of processing stages
115
What did Donald Broadbent's flow diagram conclude about the filter?
unattended information does not pass through the filter
116
what are John McCarthys conferences on AI and Information theory?
program computers to mimic operation of human mind -- organised conference
117
What is AI?
making a machine behave in ways that would be called intelligent if a human were so behaving
118
What did Herb Simon & Alan Newel create a computer program to do?
to create proofs for problems in logic.
Created the logic theorists program
119
What is the logical theorists program?
able to create proofs of mathematical theorems that involve principles of logic, use humanlike reasoning process.
120
What is George Miller's "Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two"?
there are limits to the human's ability to process information -- information processing of human mind is limited to about 7 items
121
What are the two aspects of research to apply to cognitive psychology in general?
1. the role of models in cognitive psychology
| 2. benefits for science and society
122
What are the two kinds of models to be aware of that poly to cognitive psychology in general?
1. structural models - structures in brain that are involved in specific functions
2. process models - illustrate how a process operates
123
What are structural models?
depict representations of a physical structure and can mimic the form or appearance of a given object
124
What is the purpose of structural models?
simplify - easier to study and understand the system
ex. A 3D model of the brain can be used to illustrate the locations of different brain structures. The different colour refer to different parts of the cerebral cortex. The wrinkled outer layer of the brain
125
What is the structural model "model of visual system"?
each box represent a complex structure. Lines represent connections between structures
it helps us to visualise the layout of a system and how different components are connected and interact
126
what do process models represent?
represent processes that are involved in cognitive mechanisms, with boxes usually representing specific processes and arrows indicating connections between processes
127
What can our increased understanding of the functioning of our mind can be used to?
A) design proper control panels and traffic situations
B) influence decision making and consumer behaviour
C) improve protocols relating to eyewitness interrogation
D) develop working memory and executive-control training programmes
E) stimulate good practice in education
128
Using behaviour to infer mental processes is the basic principle of
A) behaviourism
B) humanism
C) cognitive psychology
D) operant conditioning
C) cognitive psychology
129
The example at the begging of the book, in which Raphael talks to his friend on a cell phone on his way to class, was used to illustrate how
A) cognitive psychologists study problem solving in adults
B) several different cognitive processes can take place at one time
C) human cognition is affected by emotional events
D) both physiology and behaviour is important to the study of cognition
B) several different cognitive processes can take place at one time
130
Donders' main reason for doing his choice reaction time experiment was to study
A) sensation
B) childhood attachment styles
C) decision making
D) personality development
C) decision making
131
In Donders' experiment on decision making, when participants were asked to press a button upon presentation of a light they were engaged in a
A) reaction time task
B) simple reaction time task
C) choice reaction time task
D) presentation task
B) simple reaction time task
132
Which of the following stimuli were used in Ebbinghaus's "memory" experiment discussed in your text?
A) common words
B) light illuminated on the left or right of a computer screen
C) grey rectangles in front of light rectangles
D) three-letter nonsense words
D) three-letter nonsense words
133
Ebbinghaus's "memory" experiments were important because they
a. described complex decision-making.
b. plotted functions that
described the operation of the mind.
c. were the first to combine basic elements of experience called sensations.
d. showed how positive reinforcers strengthen behavior.
b. plotted functions that
| described the operation of the mind.
134
Which of the following methods, often associated with structuralism, was used in the psychology laboratory established by Wilhelm Wundt?
a. Analytic introspection
b. Measuring reaction times
c. Operant conditioning
d. Classical conditioning
a. Analytic introspection
135
Which of the following is a criticism of analytic introspection?
a. It infers mental processes based on objective data.
b. It produces results that are too easy to verify.
c. It produces variable results from person to person.
d. It requires no training.
c. It produces variable results from person to person.
136
Your text describes the occurrence of a "cognitive revolution" during which dramatic changes took place in the way psychology was studied. This so-called "revolution" occurred parallel to (and, in part, because of) the introduction of
a. cognitive psychology textbooks.
b. analytic introspection.
c. Skinner boxes.
d. computers.
d. computers.
137
Who developed the concept of the cognitive map?
a. Raynor
b. Sanders
c. James
d. Tolman
d. Tolman
138
Attention, perception, memory, and decision making are all different types of mental processes in which the mind engages. These are known as different types of
A. models.
B. cognition.
C. reaction times.
D. savings.
B. cognition.
139
By comparing reaction times across different tasks, Donders was able to conclude how long the mind needs to perform a certain cognitive task. Donders interpreted the difference in reaction time between the simple and choice conditions of his experiment as indicating how long it took to
A. perceive the stimulus.
B. process the stimulus.
C. attend to the stimulus.
D. make a decision about the stimulus
D. make a decision about the stimulus
140
The main point of the Donders' reaction time experiments was to
A. show that reaction times can be measured accurately.
B. measure the amount of time it takes to make a decision.
C. determine differences in the way people react to stimuli.
D. show that our cognitions are often based on unconscious inferences.
B. measure the amount of time it takes to make a decision.
141
In Donders' experiment on decision making, when participants were asked to press one button if the light on the left was illuminated and another button if the light on the right was illuminated, they were engaged in a
A. reaction time task.
B. simple reaction time task.
C. choice reaction time task.
D. presentation task.
C. choice reaction time task.
142
Reaction time refers to the time between the ________ of a stimulus and a person's response to it.
A. perception
B. mental awareness
C. disappearance
D. presentation
D. presentation
143
```
Donders' reaction time experiment was performed using stimuli in which of the following sensory modalities?
A. Touch
B. Hearing
C. Smell
D. Vision
```
D. Vision
144
A common feature of both a reaction time experiment and an operant conditioning experiment is
A. the presentation of positive reinforcers.
B. the measurement of behavior.
C. the inference of mental processes.
D. all of these are common features
B. the measurement of behavior.
145
Donders' measurement of reaction time is particularly important because it demonstrated the "time course" on which the mind operates. Donders found that it took ______ to decide which of two buttons to push in response to a stimulus.
A. 1/100 second
B. 1/10 second
C. a second
D. two seconds
B. 1/10 second
146
The first experiments in cognitive psychology were based on the idea that mental responses can be
A. measured directly.
B. inferred from the participant's behavior.
C. measured by comparing the presentation of the stimulus and the participant's response.
D. measured by comparing responses among different participants
B. inferred from the participant's behavior.
147
The relationship between the _____ is NOT measured directly by cognitive psychologists.
A. physiological response and the behavioral outcome
B. cognitive task and the behavioral outcome
C. cognitive task and the physiological response
D. cognitive task and the mental response
D. cognitive task and the mental response
148
```
According to Ebbinghaus' savings curve, savings is a function of
A. word familiarity.
B. sensory modality.
C. retention interval.
D. reaction time.
```
C. retention interval.
149
```
The founder of the first laboratory of scientific psychology was
A. Franciscus Donders.
B. Hermann von Helmholtz.
C. Wilhelm Wundt.
D. Hermann Ebbinghaus.
```
C. Wilhelm Wundt.
150
The procedure in which trained participants describe their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli presented under controlled conditions is known as
A. information processing.
B. analytic introspection.
C. functional analysis.
D. behavioral analysis.
B. analytic introspection.
151
John Watson believed that psychology should focus on the study of
A. observable behavior.
B. mental processes.
C. consciousness.
D. attention.
A. observable behavior.
152
```
Which of the following was considered positive by the behaviorists?
A. Observable behavior
B. Consciousness
C. Introspection
D. The mind
```
A. Observable behavior
153
```
The "Little Albert" experiment involving the rat and the loud noise is an example of which of the following types of experiments?
A. Reaction time
B. Unconscious inference
C. Classical conditioning
D. Operant conditioning
```
C. Classical conditioning
154
Behaviorists believe that the presentation of_______ increases the frequency of behavior.
A. positive reinforcers
B. negative reinforcers
C. practice trials
D. excitatory neurotransmitters
A. positive reinforcers
155
```
Which of the following psychologists is known for research on operant conditioning?
A. Franciscus Donders
B. Wilhelm Wundt
C. John Watson
D. B.F. Skinner
```
D. B.F. Skinner
156
The investigation of how behavior is strengthened by presentation of positive reinforcers (e.g., food) or withdrawal of negative reinforcers (e.g., shock) is best known as
A. classical conditioning.
B. the method of savings.
C. choice reaction time.
D. operant conditioning.
D. operant conditioning.
157
A mental conception of the layout of a physical space is known as a(n)
A. cognitive map.
B. mental model.
C. artificial intelligence.
D. memory consolidation.
A. cognitive map.
158
```
Regarding children's language development, Noam Chomsky noted that children generate many sentences they have never heard before. From this, he concluded that language development is driven largely by
A. inborn programming.
B. cultural influences.
C. classical conditioning.
D. operant conditioning.
```
A. inborn programming.
159
```
Who proposed that children's language development was caused by imitation and reinforcement?
A. Noam Chomsky
B. John Watson
C. Keller Breland
D. B.F. Skinner
```
D. B.F. Skinner
160
Which of the following events is most closely associated with the decline of behaviorism as an approach to psychology?
A. Watson's "Little Albert" experiment
B. Skinner's publication of the book, Verbal Behavior
C. Development of the technique of analytic introspection
D. The proposal of cognitive maps
B. Skinner's publication of the book, Verbal Behavior
161
Which of the following does NOT characterize the information processing (IP) approach to the study of cognition?
A. IP depicts the mind as processing information in a sequence of stages.
B. IP supports the principle of behaviorism that behavior is a stimulus-response relationship.
C. IP involves the use of computers as a metaphor to understand human cognition.
D. IP has an interest in investigating unobservable mental events.
B. IP supports the principle of behaviorism that behavior is a stimulus-response relationship.
162
The scene of a human sitting at a computer terminal, responding to stimuli flashed on the computer screen, would most likely be described as depicting a(n) _________ experiment.
A. information processing
B. analytic introspection
C. operant conditioning
D. behaviorist
A. information processing
163
Donald Broadbent was the first person to develop which of the following?
A. A diagram depicting the mind as processing information in a sequence of stages
B. A computer program for solving logic problems
C. An experimental procedure for studying the way people process information
D. The first textbook of cognitive psychology
A. A diagram depicting the mind as processing information in a sequence of stages
164
Who introduced the flow diagram to represent what is happening in the mind?
A. Donald Broadbent
B. Colin Cherry
C. Newell and Simon
D. Wilhelm Wundt
A. Donald Broadbent
165
Colin Cherry's experiment in which participants listen to two messages simultaneously, one in each ear, found that
A. people can focus on one message and ignore the other one.
B. people can focus on the message they were repeating.
C. people take in very little information about the ignored message.
D. all of these
D. all of these
166
Broadbent's notion that the mind could be represented as operating in a sequence of stages, often represented by boxes, allows cognitive psychologists to develop _____that can be tested by further experiments.
A. models
B. approaches
C. memories
D. cognitive maps
A. models
167
The field that studies how to make machines behave in ways that are intelligent if a human were so behaving is known as
A. cognitive psychology.
B. behaviorism.
C. artificial intelligence.
D. flow diagramming.
C. artificial intelligence.
168
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The use of the term "artificial intelligence" was coined by
A. B.F. Skinner.
B. Colin Cherry.
C. Edward Tolman.
D. John McCarthy
```
D. John McCarthy.
169
Newell and Simon were among the first to use computers in cognitive psychology. Their computer program
A. simulated human attention.
B. solved logic problems.
C. controlled presentation of visual stimuli during cognitive psychology experiments.
D. introduced the first flow diagram.
B. solved logic problems.
170
At the MIT Symposium on Information Theory, George Miller presented a paper suggesting that
A. the human ability to process information is unlimited.
B. there are limits to the human ability to process information.
C. intelligent machines can be successfully created.
D. memory consolidation is enhanced by REM sleep.
B. there are limits to the human ability to process information
171
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What year is usually cited as the "birthday" of cognitive science (pick the closest year)?
A. 1879
B. 1945
C. 1956
D. 1967
```
C. 1956
172
The "cognitive revolution"
A. occurred rapidly, within a period of a few years, in response to the attacks on Skinner and the development of computers.
B. extended over a long period of time, beginning in the early part of the century, in reaction to Wundt's introspection experiments.
C. was a gradual process that occurred over a few decades.
D. was not really necessary because the study of the mind has been a constant part of experimental psychology since the founding of the first psychology laboratory.
C. was a gradual process that occurred over a few decades.
173
According to your text, the behavioral approach to the study of the mind involves
A. measuring the relation between stimulation and brain processes.
B. controlling behavior by presenting positive reinforcements.
C. measuring the relation between stimuli and behavior.
D. controlling behavior by presenting negative reinforcements.
C. measuring the relation between stimuli and behavior.
174
The process during which information is strengthened and transformed into a strong memory that is resistant to interference is known as
A. savings.
B. memory consolidation.
C. introspection.
D. cognition.
B. memory consolidation.
175
Gais et al.'s research on the impact of sleep on memory consolidation illustrates which type of approach to the study of the operations of the mind?
A. Behavioral
B. Structural
C. Physiological
D. Mathematical
C. Physiological
176
Which of the following are the two primary categories of models in cognitive psychology?
a. Psychodynamic models and behavioral models
b. Structural models and process models
c. Biological models and psychological models
d. Interpersonal models and intrapersonal models
b. Structural models and process models
177
Which of the following analogies would provide the best description for how research progresses in cognitive psychology?
A pair of railroad tracks where two things move in a parallel fashion
b. An octopus where every leg comes from a singular body
c. A trail from which one thing leads to another
d. A pyramid, where all questions lead to a singular answer, or "tip"
c. A trail from which one thing leads to another
178
An early model of memory indicates that incoming information is first handled by "sensory" memory, is then moved to "short term" memory, and finally is pushed into "long-term" memory. This model, proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968, is an example of a(n) ________ model.
A. process
B. structural
C. nomothetic
D. idiographic
A. process
179
The first formal laboratory of psychology, where the approach of structuralism was created, was founded in which city?
A. Leipzig, Germany
B. Paris, France
C. Baltimore, Maryland, USA
D. Madrid, Spain
A. Leipzig, Germany
