Chapter 1: Introduction to Abnormal Psychology Flashcards
What are the key considerations when defining abnormal behavior?
- is the behavior unusual?
- does the behavior violate social norms?
- does the behavior involve a faulty interpretation of reality
- does the behavior cause personal distress
- is the behavior maladaptive?
- is the behavior dangerous (to the person or others)?
How does culture affect our perception of what is abnormal?
behavior considered normal in one culture may be deemed abnormal in another (e.g. depression and anxiety)
we need to consider how people in different cultures experience states of emotional distress, including depression and anxiety, rather than imposing our perspective on them
failure to recognize cultural difference in what is deemed normal and abnormal behavior can lead to inadequate and inappropriate diagnosis and treatments
How does context affect our perception of what is abnormal?
is this abnormal?
does it deviate from social norms?
that depends on where and when the behavior and attire occur
Why should we study abnormal behavior?
abnormal behavior affects virtually everyone in one way or another
abnormal behavior patterns that involve a disturbance of psychological functioning or behavior are classified as psychological disorders
20% of Canadians will suffer from a psychological disorder in their lifetime
How common are anxiety disorders?
affects almost 30% of adults in their lifetime
How common are mood disorders?
affects over 20% of adults in their lifetime
How common are substance abuse disorders?
affects almost 15% of adults in their lifetime
How common is any disorder?
affects over 46% of adults in their lifetime
What are risk factors?
anything that increases the probability of an adverse outcome
What is a protective factor?
either offsets or decreases probability of adverse outcomes
What are the main risk factors for developing a psychological disorder?
age
education
childhood traumas
current stress
life events
lack of social supports
gender
physical health
genetic predisposition
How to multiple risk factors affect a persons probability of developing a psychological disorder?
exposure to multiple risk factors can have an exponential effect that dramatically increases the likelihood of adverse outcomes
exposure to just two risk factors can engender a four-fold increase in adverse outcomes
exposure to four or more risk factors can increase adverse outcomes tenfold
How was abnormal behavior viewed in medieval times?
exorcisms were performed on people deemed mentally ill
How was abnormal behavior viewed as witchcraft?
Malleus Maleficarum
demonological model (not universally held)
thought that mental illness is the cause of demons (demonic possession)
could be the fault of the person (deals with the devil)
mental illness thought of as external
What is trephining?
part of the demonological model
drilling a hole in skull to release demons from the head
implies understanding that the center of the mind is in the head
What was Hippocrates’ model of “ill humors”?
abnormal behavior the result of underlying biological processes (an excess of one liquid)
liquids: yellow bile, blood, black bile, phlegm
treatment: put them on a centrifuge which increases blood pressure in the brain
an internal model
What was the function of the asylums in Europe and the New World?
Bedlam in London UK
Hotel Dieu in Quebec, 1639
reflects the belief that there’s nothing we can do
great way to sequester or get rid of someone who was annoying you
What was the reform movement?
moral therapy
Phillippe Pinel (France), William Tuke (England), and Dorothea Dix (Canada & USA)
the perceptions of mental illness before this movement made treatments unhelpful, this movement created more moral treatment
Why did treatment take a step backwards in Canada?
mental institutions move to custodial care
What was the Community Mental Health Movement in Canada?
Canadian Mental Health Association, 1963
deinstitutionalization occurred due to patients being sedated, but they were still stigmatized so it was hard to reintegrate
pharmacology and phenothiazines, helped people calm down and become sedated
psychiatric homeless
What was the medical model of abnormal behavior?
we need to treat it like any other disease
schizophrenia is influenced by internal factors, it is a disease of the brain
What were the psychological models of abnormal behavior?
Charcot: hypnosis (don’t have to only treat it with drugs), and hysteria (conversion conditions, somatic symptom disorder)
Freud: psychodynamic model and catharsis, exchange of energy
What was Thomas Szasz’s idea of the “Myth of Mental Illness”?
only a few mental conditions are problems of the mind, others are made up by society to put people away
look at the influence society has on the individual
What are the biological perspectives on abnormal behavior?
biological perspectives (biology can contribute to mental illness) vs. the medical model (something is wrong, let’s fix it model of now things don’t work)
one can adopt a biologically oriented perspective without using the terminology of the medical model
a focus on biological factors does not require the medical model
What is the genome?
all the genetic material encoded in DNA
What is DNA?
the molecular structure of the genome comprised of four organic compounds
adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine
How big is the human genome?
2.8 billion base pairs
20-25 thousand genes
What are genetic and chromosomal disorders?
closely associated with mental disorder
high hereditability
What is the epigenome?
study of acquired change in genetic activation
What are stem cells?
haven’t differentiated, can turn into any type of cell
What are the parts of the neuron?
soma
dendrites
axon
terminals
knobs
Which neurotransmitters play a role in psychological disorders?
excesses and deficiencies of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine have been connected with mood disorders and eating disorders
reduced levels of neurotransmitter acetylcholine is associated with Alzheimer’s disease
excessive levels of neurotransmitter dopamine appear to be involved in schizophrenia
serotonin, another neurotransmitter, is linked to anxiety disorders, mood disorders, sleep disorders, and eating disorders
What are psychodynamic models?
more general than just Freud, idea that certain branches of awareness aren’t available to us, defense mechanisms
What is psychoanalytic theory?
mental illness is an internal conflict and misuse of defense mechanisms
What is the structure of the mind in psychoanalytic theory?
unconscious: you cannot get to yourself
preconscious: not immediately in awareness but can bring to mind
conscious: occupies your mind right now
What is the Id?
babies
pleasure principle and primary process
instant gratification
What is the Superego?
morals, moral principle
strict social behavior
even at the detriment of the organism
What is the Ego?
mediate the Id and Superego
reality principle and secondary process
What are the five stages of psychosexual development?
- Oral Stage (oral fixation, consumer, food, alcohol, drugs, taking in everything from the environment)
- Anal Stage (retentive and expulsive traits, very stubborn, methodical, controlling, does not hold in their emotions)
- Phallic Stage (Oedipus/Electra complex, castration anxiety)
- Latency Stage
- Genital Stage
Who was Carl Jung?
analytical psychology
archetypes: reworking of id, ego and superego
collective unconscious
persona: way we express ourselves to others
anima: the embodiment of yourself in the opposite gender
Who was Alfred Adler?
inferiority complex (everyone has something they feel inferior about)
drive to superiority (drive to overcome)
creative self (allows us to strive and move forward in a productive way)
Who was Karen Horney?
feminist psychology
self theory: core of your being, your potential
womb envy: men envy women’s ability to reproduce
Who was Harry Stack Sullivan?
self-system: an individual is a collection of self-perceptions
Who was Heinz Hartmann?
ego psychology: self, adapt to environment
Who was Erik Erikson?
psychosocial development
8 stages of development
socialization
Who was Margaret Mahler?
object reactions theory: mental images of other people
introjection: to internalize, incorporate into sense of self
What are the responses and stimuluses involved in classical conditioning?
conditioned response (CR)
unconditioned stimulus (US)
conditioned stimulus (CS)
unconditioned response (UR)
What is social cognitive theory?
Albert Bandura
modelling (don’t need to be direct subject of conditioning trials)
expectancy (we don’t need to restrict our discussion to just behavior)
What are the humanistic-existential models?
we will inherently behave in a healthy way
Carl Rodgers: self actualization
Abraham Maslow: hierarchy of needs (similar to Freud in a way)
living authentically, to achieve self actualization we impose conditions of worth that conflict this self-actualization,
in theory: unconditional positive approval (demonstrate you respect them to create a good environment)
Who is Carl Rodgers?
conditional (versus unconditional) positive regard
conditions of worth
Who is Les Greenberg?
emotional intelligence
understand emotions and feelings are there for a reason
What are the cognitive perspectives on abnormal psychology?
information processing approaches
interpretive biases
Who was Albert Ellis?
argumentative
social or personal expectations cause problems
activating events –> beliefs –> consequences
Who was Aaron Beck?
collaborative imperialism
unification between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
What are cognitive distortions?
selective abstraction
overgeneralization
magnification
absolutist thinking
Who was Donald Meichenbaum?
cognitive-behavioral modification
towards behavior side rather than cognitive
What is the sociocultural perspective on abnormal behavior?
must consider the impact of social and cultural factors, such as ethnicity, gender and social roles, and poverty
functional family theory: their dynamic in the household affects them
sociocultural theorists seek causes of abnormal behavior that may reside in the failures of society rather than in the person
downward drift hypothesis: are they mentally ill because of their situation or in their situation because they are mentally ill
What is the interactionist perspective on abnormal behavior?
no one theoretical perspective can account for the complex forms of abnormal behavior
many theorists today adopt an interactionist perspective
the belief that we need to take into account the interaction of multiple factors representing biological, psychological, sociocultural, and environmental domains in order to explain abnormal behavior
What is the biopsychosocial model?
dynamic interplay of three major systems or domains
two internal systems: biological, psychological
one external system: sociocultural and environmental factors
Clinical Psychologist
person with graduate training in psychology who specializes in abnormal behavior, he or she must be registered and licensed with a provincial psychological regulatory body in order to provide psychological services in that province
Psychiatrist
physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders
Psychological Disorders
disturbances of psychological functioning or behavior associated with states of personal distress or impaired social, occupational, or interpersonal functioning, also called mental disorders
Abnormal Psychology
branch of psychology that deals with the description, causes and treatment of abnormal behavior patterns
Medical Model
biological perspective in which abnormal behavior is viewed as symptomatic of underlying illness
Hallucinations
perceptions that occur in the absence of an external stimulus and that are confused with reality
Paranoid
having irrational suspicions
Delusions
firmly held but inaccurate beliefs that persist despite evidence they have no basis in reality
Ideas of Persecution
a form of delusional thinking characterized by false beliefs that one is being persecuted or victimized by others
Agoraphobia
a fear of places and situations from which it might be difficult or embarrassing to escape in the event of panicky symptoms or of situations in which help may be unavailable if such problems occur
Worldview
prevailing view of the times
Possession
in demonology, a type of superstitious belief in which abnormal behavior is taken as a sign that the individual has become possessed by demons or the devil, usually as a form of retribution or the result of making a pact with the devil
Trephining
harsh prehistoric practice of cutting a hole in a person’s skull, possibly as an ancient form of surgery for brain trauma, or possibly as a means of releasing the demons prehistoric people believed caused abnormal behavior in the afflicted individuals
Demonological Model
the model that explains abnormal behavior in terms of supernatural forces
Humors
four fluids in the body (phlegm, black bile, blood, and yellow bile)
Hippocrates believed the health of the body and mind depended on their balance
Phlegmatic
slow and stolid
Melancholia
state of severe depression
Sanguine
cheerful
Choleric
having or showing bad temper
Exorcism
ritual intended to expel demons or evil spirits from a person believed to be possessed
Moral Therapy
a 19th century treatment philosophy emphasizing that hospitalized mental patients should be treated with care and understanding in a pleasant environment, not shackled in chains
Phenothiazines
group of antipsychotic drugs or “major tranquilizers” used in the treatment of schizophrenia
Deinstitutionalization
practice of discharging large numbers of hospitalized mental patients to the community and reducing the need for new admissions through the development of alternative treatment approaches such as halfway houses and crisis intervention services
Dementia Praecox
term used by Emil Kraepelin to describe the disorder we now call schizophrenia
General Paresis
degenerative brain disorder that occurs during the final stage of syphilis
Hypnosis
trance-like state, induced by suggestion, in which one is generally passive and responsive to the commands of the hypnotist
Hysteria
former term for conversion disorder
Psychodynamic Model
theoretical model of Freud and his followers in which behavior is viewed as the product of clashing forces within the personality
Genetics
science of heredity
Genes
units found on chromosomes that carry heredity
Polygenetic
traits or characteristics that are determined by more than one gene
Chromosomes
structures found in the nuclei of cells that carry the units of heredity, or genes
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid is a double-stranded complex molecule of helical structure that contains the genetic instructions for building and maintaining living organisms
Genotype
the set of traits specified by our genetic code
Phenotype
representation of the total array of traits of an organism, as influenced by the interaction of nature (genetic factors) and nurture (environmental factors)
Proteins
organic compounds consisting of amino acids the perform most life functions and make up the majority of cellular structures
Epigenome
the sum total of inherited and acquired molecular variations to the genome that lead to changes in gene regulation without changing the DNA sequence of the genome itself
Epigenetics
the study of heritable and acquired changes in gene regulation (phenotype) that occur without affecting DNA sequence (genotype)
Gene Expression
the process by which a gene sequence becomes activated (“turned on”) and is translated into the proteins that determine the structure and functions of body cells
Gene Silencing
the process of preventing or suppressing (“switching off”) a gene sequence from being translated into proteins
Neurons
nerve cells
Soma
cell body
Dendrites
root-like structures at the end of a neuron that receive nerve impulses from other neurons
Axon
long, thin part of a neuron long which nervous impulses travel
Terminals
the small branching structures found at the tips of axons
Knobs
swelling ending of axon terminals
Neurotransmitters
chemical substances that serve as a type of messenger by transmitting neural impulses from one neuron to another
Synapse
junction between the terminal knob of one neuron and the dendrite or soma of another through which nerve impulses pass
Receptor Site
part of a dendrite on the receiving neuron that is structured to receive a neurotransmitter
Norepinephrine
type of neurotransmitter of the catecholamine class
Alzheimer’s Disease
progressive brain disease characterized by gradual loss of memory and intellectual functioning, personality changes, and eventual loss of ability to care for oneself
Acetylcholine
type of neurotransmitter involved in the control of muscle contractions
Dopamine
neurotransmitter of the catecholamine class that is believed to play a role in schizophrenia
Serotonin
type of neurotransmitter, imbalances of which have been linked to depressive and bipolar disorders and anxiety
Psychoanalytic Theory
theoretical model of personality developed by Freud, also called psychoanalysis
Conscious
in psychodynamic theory, the part of the mind that corresponds to our present awareness
Preconscious
in psychodynamic theory, descriptive material that lies outside of present awareness but can be brought to awareness by focusing attention
Unconsious
in psychodynamic theory, pertaining to impulses or ideas that are not readily available to awareness, in many instances because they are kept from awareness by means of repression
also in psychodynamic theory, the part of the mind that contains repressed material and primitive urges of the Id
more generally, a state of unawareness or loss of consciousness
Structural Hypothesis
in Freud’s theory, the belief that the clashing forces within the personality could be divided into three psychic structures; the id, the ego, and the superego
Psychic
relating to mental phenomena
a person who claims to be sensitive to supernatural forces
Id
in psychodynamic theory, the unconscious psychic structure present at birth, the Id contains instinctual drives and is governed by the pleasure principle
Pleasure Principle
in psychodynamic theory, the governing principle of the Id, involving the demands for immediate gratification of instinctual needs
Primary Process Thinking
in psychodynamic theory, the mental process in infancy by which Id seeks gratification of primitive impulses by means of imagining it possesses what it desires, thinking that is illogical and magical and fails to discriminate between reality and fantasy
Ego
in psychodynamic theory, the psychic structure corresponding to the concept of self, the ego is governed by the reality principle and is responsible for finding socially acceptable outlets for the urges of the id, the Ego is characterized by the capacity to tolerate frustration and delay gratification
Reality Principle
in psychodynamic theory, the governing principle of the ego that involves consideration of what is socially acceptable and practical in gratifying needs
Secondary Process Thinking
in psychodynamic theory, the reality-based thinking processes and problem-solving activities of the ego
Self
center of consciousness that organizes sensory impressions and governs one’s perceptions of the world, the sum total of a person’s thoughts, sensory impressions, and feelings
Superego
in psychodynamic theory, the psychic structure that represents the incorporation of the moral values of parents and important others and floods the ego and guilt and shame when it falls short of meeting those standards
the superego is governed by the moral principle and consists of two parts: the conscience and the ego ideal
Identification
in psychodynamic theory, the process of incorporating the personality or behavior of others
in social learning theory, a process of imitation by which children acquire behaviors similar to those of role models
Moral Principle
in psychodynamic theory, the principle that governs the superego to set moral standards and enforce adherence to them
Ego Ideal
in Freud’s view, the configuration of higher social values and moral ideas embodied in the superego
Defense Mechanisms
in psychodynamic theory, the reality-distorting strategies used by the ego to shield itself from conscious awareness of anxiety-evoking or troubling material
Repression
in psychodynamic theory, a type of defense mechanism involving the ejection from awareness of anxiety-provoking ideas, images, or impulses without the conscious awareness that one has done so
Psychosis
a severe form of disturbed behavior in which people show impaired reality and difficulties in meeting the demands of daily life, schizophrenia is a prominent example of a psychotic disorder
Neo-Freudians
term used to describe the “second generation” of theorists who followed in the Freudian tradition
on the whole, Neo-Freudians (such as Jung, Adler, Horney, and Sullivan) placed greater emphasis on the importance of cultural and social influences on behavior and lesser importance on sexual impulses and the functioning of the Id
Behaviorism
school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of observable or overt behavior and focuses on investigating the relationships between stimuli and responses
Conditioned Response
in classical conditioning, a learned or acquired response to a previously neutral stimulus
a response to a conditioned stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus
stimulus that elicits an instinctive or unlearned response from an organism
Unconditioned Response
unlearned response pr a response to an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus
previously neutral stimulus that comes to evoke a conditioned response following repeated pairings with a stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) that had already evoked that response
Reinforcement
stimulus that increases the frequency of the response it follows
Positive Reinforcers
types of reinforcers that increase the frequency of a behavior, food, and social approval are generally (but not always) positive reinforcer
Negative Reinforcers
reinforcers whose removal increases the frequency of an operant behavior, anxiety, pain, and social disapproval often function as negative reinforcers; that is, their removal tends to increase the rate of the immediately proceeding behavior
Primary Reinforcers
natural reinforcers or stimuli that have reinforcement value without learning, ex. water, food, warmth and relief from pain
Secondary Reinforcers
stimuli that gain reinforcement value through their association with established reinforcers (ex. money and social approval)
Punishment
unpleasant stimuli that suppress the frequency of the behaviors they follow
Behavior Therapy
a learning-based model of therapy
Emotional Intelligence
involves the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions
Catastrophize
to exaggerate or magnify the negative consequences of events; to “blow things out of proportion”
Social-Cognitive Theory
a broader view of learning theory that emphasizes both situational determinants o behavior (reinforcements and punishments) and cognitive factors (experiences, values, attitudes, beliefs, etc.)
Reciprocal Determinism
the ongoing process of two-way interactions among personal factors (cognitive abilities as well as affective and biological characteristics), behaviors and emotional factors
Expectancies
in social-cognitive theory, a personal variable describing people’s predictions of future outcomes
Downward Drift Hypothesis
the belief that people with psychological problems may drift downward in socioeconomic status
Diathesis-Stress Model
model of abnormal behavior positing that abnormal behavior patterns, such as schizophrenia, involve the interaction of genetic and environmental influences
a genetic or acquired predisposition (diathesis) increases an individual’s vulnerability to developing the disorder in response to stressful life circumstances
if the level of stress is kept under the person’s particular threshold, the disorder may never develop, even among people with the predisposition
Diathesis
a predisposition or vulnerability
Biopsychosocial Model
a conceptual model emphasizing that human behavior is linked to complex interactions among biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors
