Chapter 1- Introduction

Question 1

List and describe the 5 main challenges to psychology – what makes it distinctive?

Answer 1

1. Human behavior is difficult to predict
2. Psychological variables are rarely independent
3. Individual differences among people
4. People influence one another
5. Behavior is shaped by culture

Question 2

What are the 5 main theoretical perspective that shaped psychology?

Answer 2

Structuralism: Insisted on systematic data collection and empiricism

Functionalism: Using evolutionary theory in modern psychology

Behaviorism: Emphasis on learning principles, scientific rigor

Cognitivism: Focus on our interpretation of events.

Psychoanalysis: conceiving mental processes outside of conscious awareness

Question 3

Describe 5 types of psychologists and what they do

Answer 3

Clinical: asses, diagnose, and treat mental illness

Counselling: For those experiencing temporary or situational problems

Experimental: Research to understand memory, language, thinking, etc.

Biopsychology: Physiological bases of behavior

Developmental: Work with infants and children, examining how people change over time

Question 4

What is the difference between a scientific theory and a hypothesis?

Answer 4

Scientific theories are how you’re able to text things.

They generate hypotheses.

Question 5

What are the 7 warning signs of pseudoscience?

Answer 5

1. Lack of Empirical Evidence:
   Claims are not supported by robust scientific data or peer-reviewed research.
2. Overreliance on Anecdotal Evidence:
   rely heavily on individual stories or experiences rather than controlled experiments or statistical analysis.
3. Falsifiability:
   Claims cannot be tested or proven wrong.
4. Use of Jargon and Technical Language:
   complex language or technical jargon to give an illusion of credibility
5. Appeal to Authority:
   cites authorities or experts who lack relevant qualifications
6. Confirmation Bias:
   ignoring or dismissing contradictory evidence. looking for what supports their idea.
7. Lack of Peer Review:
   Research or claims are not subjected to rigorous peer review.

Question 6

List 6 principles of scientific thinking.

Answer 6

1. Ruling out Rival Hypotheses.
2. Correlation vs. Causation
3. Falsifiability

4.Replicability

5.Extraordinary Claims

6.Occam’s Razor (KISS)

Question 7

Describe the problem with correlational design in contrast to experimental design?

Answer 7

correlational design can reveal important relationships between variables and is useful for generating hypotheses. it lacks the ability to establish causation, control for third variables, and clarify directionality

Experimental design, on the other hand, provides a more rigorous approach to testing causal relationships, making it a more robust methodology for understanding the effects of one variable on another.

Question 8

Psychology

Answer 8

The scientific study of the mind, brain and behavior

Question 9

Levels of Analysis

Answer 9

Psychological, Biological, and Social, Cultural Influence

Question 10

Multiply Determined

Answer 10

behavior or phenomenon is influenced by multiple factors or causes rather than a single factor

Question 11

Individual Differences

Answer 11

variations in characteristics, traits, and behaviors among individuals, including factors such as personality, intelligence, motivations, and experiences that contribute to how people think, feel, and act.

Question 12

Introspection

Answer 12

process of examining and reflecting on one’s own thoughts, feelings, and mental processes

Question 13

Structuralism

Answer 13

To use introspection to identify basic elements or “structures” of experience- 5 sense

Question 14

Functionalism

Answer 14

To understand the functions or adaptive purposes of our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Question 15

Natural Selection

Answer 15

psychological traits and behaviors may have evolved because they provided adaptive advantages for survival and reproduction

Question 16

Behaviorism

Answer 16

To uncover the general principles of learning that explain all behaviours; focus is largely on observable behaviour.

Question 17

Cognitive Psychology

Answer 17

studies mental processes, including perception, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making

Question 18

Cognitive Neuroscience

Answer 18

To examine the role of mental processes on behaviour

Question 19

Psychoanalysis

Answer 19

To uncover the role of unconscious psychological processes and early life experiences in behaviour

Question 20

Evolutionary Psychology

Answer 20

examines how evolutionary principles, such as natural selection, influence human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, positing that many psychological traits and social behaviors

Question 21

Naive Realism

Answer 21

“Seeing is believing”
Influence of stereotypes and cultural norms.

Question 22

Scientific Theory

Answer 22

An explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world

Question 23

Hypothesis

Answer 23

Testable theory

Question 24

Confirmation Bias

Answer 24

Tendency to seek evidence that supports our hypothesis. Neglecting or distorting contrary evidence

Question 25

Belief Perseverance

Answer 25

Tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence is contradictory

The “don’t confuse me with the facts” bias

Question 26

Metaphysical Claim

Answer 26

Assertions about the world that are not testable- religion or moral values

Question 27

Pseudoscience

Answer 27

Set of claims that seem scientific but lack defenses from bias

Question 28

Ad Hoc Immunizing Hypothesis

Answer 28

Specific type of hypothesis proposed to defend a theory from potential falsification by explaining away contradictory evidence.

Question 29

Patternicity

Answer 29

Tendency to detect meaningful patterns in random (or unrelated) stimuli.

Question 30

Terror Management Theory

Answer 30

We experience anxiety because we are aware that death is inevitable but unpredictable.

To manage this anxiety, we seek worldviews that provide meaning, purpose and continuity.

The theory is tested by manipulating mortality salience (the extent to which death is on our minds).

Question 31

Scientific Skepticism

Answer 31

Keep an open mind to all claims.
Accept claims only after researchers have subjected them to careful scientific tests.

Question 32

Critical Thinking

Answer 32

Aim to evaluate claims open-mindedly and carefully
Not intuitive and requires overcoming biases.

Key to scientific method.

Question 33

Correlation- Causation Fallacy

Answer 33

belief that a correlation between two variables implies that one variable causes the other, without sufficient evidence to establish relationship.

Question 34

Variable

Answer 34

Anything that can vary

Question 35

Falsifiability

Answer 35

Can the claim be disproven?

Question 36

Risky Prediction

Answer 36

Good theories are sometimes bold and can be proven wrong (risky predictions)

Question 37

Replicability

Answer 37

Is it possible to duplicate scientific findings?

Question 38

Basic Research

Answer 38

increasing fundamental knowledge and understanding of phenomena, often without immediate practical application in mind.

Question 39

Applied Research

Answer 39

inquiry that seeks to solve specific, practical problems or address real-world issues