Chapter 1: Cytology Flashcards
1
Q
What is the smallest structural unit of a multicellular organism.
A
Cell
2
Q
What are the building blocks of life, forming the structure
and functions of all tissues, organs, and systems.
A
Cells
3
Q
Small, single-celled organisms like bacteria; lack a nucleus, histones, and membrane-bound organelles.
A
Prokaryotic Cells
4
Q
Found in multicellular organisms and contain complex structures, including a nucleus and organelles.
A
Eukaryotic Cells
5
Q
Cell size varies between species and within an organism but doesn’t relate to the organism’s overall size.
Mammalian cells typically measure?
A
10-30 microns
6
Q
Separates the cell from its environment and creates compartments within the cell.
A
Cell Membrane
7
Q
The outer membrane is called the?
A
plasma membrane
8
Q
The jelly-like substance between the nucleus and plasma membrane, where cell activities occur and DNA instructions are decoded.
A
Cytoplasm
9
Q
is enclosed by a membrane and contains the cell’s DNA, which holds the genetic instructions for making proteins.
A
nucleus
10
Q
is the smallest unit of protoplasm that can exist independently.
A
Cell
11
Q
What is a jelly-like substance made of various chemicals that enable life processes, It is a dynamic and balanced mix of biochemical substances, salts, and water, allowing the cell to function?
A
Protoplasm
12
Q
Chemical Composition of a Cell:
A
• Water: 85%
• Proteins: 10%
• Lipids: 2%
• Carbohydrates: 1%
• Electrolytes: 2%
13
Q
The protoplasm between the plasma membrane and nucleus.
A
Cytoplasm
14
Q
What supports vital functions such as metabolism, irritability, contractility, secretion, conductivity, excretion, endocytosis, exocytosis, growth, maintenance, and reproduction?
A
protoplasm
15
Q
What surrounds and protects the cell. It is made up of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates and has specific structures and functions.
A
cell membrane (plasma membrane)
16
Q
• Span the entire membrane and are tightly embedded in the lipid bilayer.
• Function as channels for water-soluble substances (like ions) and as carriers for active transport.
• Some act as enzymes.
• The side near the cytoplasm is the P-face, while the side near the environment is the E-face.
A
Intrinsic (integral) proteins
17
Q
These proteins are loosely attached to the inner or outer surface of the membrane. Work as enzymes and regulate functions inside the cell.
A
Extrinsic (peripheral) proteins
18
Q
• Found on the membrane’s outer surface as glycoproteins or glycolipids.
A
Carbohydrates in the Cell Membrane
19
Q
carbohydrates from the cell membrane form a loose,coating called the
A
glycocalyx
20
Q
• Helps in cell recognition and adhesion.
• Attaches cells to one another.
• Acts as receptors for hormones (e.g., insulin).
• Provides protection and plays a role in immune responses.
A
Glycocalyx
21
Q
Lipids in the Cell Membrane Includes?
A
phospholipids, sphingolipids, and cholesterol
22
Q
phosphate head that faces outward the cell
A
hydrophilic (water-loving)
23
Q
fatty acid tail that faces inward the cell
A
hydrophobic (water-fearing)
24
Q
helps control plasma membrane fluidity and permeability
A
Cholesterol
25
• Describes the membrane as having a "sandwich-like" structure: a lipid layer between two protein layers.
• Under an electron microscope, it appears as a trilaminar (three-layered) structure: two dark bands (protein) with a light band (lipid) in between.
Leaflet Theory
26
What is the jelly-like substance inside a cell, composed of various components?
cytoplasm
27
A clear fluid that contains dissolved proteins, electrolytes, glucose, and small amounts of lipids.
Cytosol
28
A gel-like substance that surrounds the organelles, made of proteins, lipids, carbs, and minerals like calcium, sodium, and potassium.
Hyaloplasm
29
The outer layer of the cytoplasm, just beneath the cell membrane, providing semi-solid support.
Ectoplasm (Cortex)
30
The more liquid part of the cytoplasm found between the cortex(ectoplasm) and the nucleus.
Endoplasm
31
Membrane-bound areas with enzymes that perform specific functions in the cell.
Cytoplasmic Organelles
32
Non-permanent structures that aren't as involved in metabolism, which can be membrane-bound or not.
Cytoplasmic Inclusions
33
A network of protein filaments that provide structure and shape to the cell, with microtubules forming parts like centrioles
Cytoskeleton
34
are small structures within the cell that help with various functions like energy production, protein synthesis, and transport.
Cytoplasmic organelles
35
What are the cell's powerhouses, providing the energy needed for cell functions. They vary in shape and are similar in size to bacteria.
Mitochondria
36
Smooth and porous part of mitochondria, allowing small molecules to pass through.
Outer membrane
37
Less porous part of mitochondria and contains folds called cristae.
Inner membrane
38
Inner membrane of the mitochondria is less porous and contains folds called ? These folds house the ATP-producing enzymes.
cristae
39
Between the inner and outer membranes of the mitochondria, connected to the intracristal space inside the folds.
Intermembrane space
40
Inside the inner membrane of mitochondria, containing water, solutes, and enzymes needed for energy production processes like the Krebs cycle and B-oxidation of lipids.
Mitochondrial
matrix
41
This cell organelle carry out the Krebs cycle, producing energy for the cell. They play a role in oxidative phosphorylation and fatty acid oxidation.
Mitochondria
42
This cell organelle can reproduce themselves and change shape, and they also have their own DNA and RNA for protein production.
Mitochondria
43
What are small organelles responsible for protein synthesis in the cell?
Ribosomes
44
Found in mitochondria, similar to prokaryotic ribosomes, and smaller in size (20 nm).
Mitochondrial ribosomes
45
These ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, larger in size (25 nm).
Cytoplasmic ribosomes
46
This subunit of ribosomes contains three rRNA molecules and 45 proteins(ribosomes)
Large subunit
47
Contains one rRNA molecule and about 33 proteins(ribosomes)
Small subunit
48
What translate the mRNA code into amino acid sequences, assembling proteins?
Ribosomes
49
What is a system of tubes and sacs in the cell's cytoplasm. It helps make, store, and move different substances the cell needs to work properly.
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
50
This cell organelle is studded with ribosomes, giving it a bumpy appearance. These ribosomes are involved in synthesizing proteins, especially those that are to be secreted or used inside the cell.
rough ER
51
The rER consists of flat, elongated sacs called ?, which make it look like a network of stacked pancakes.
cisternae
52
The ribosomes on the rough ER give it a staining property called?
ergastoplasm
53
This cell organelle is a network of tubules and lacks ribosomes. It is continuous with the rough ER and helps with transferring substances synthesized in the rough ER to other parts of the cell, particularly the Golgi complex.
smooth ER
54
What cell organelle has these functions:
• Protein Synthesis: Produces proteins for use inside and outside the cell (e.g., secretory proteins, membrane proteins, and lysosomal proteins).
• Glycosylation: Adds sugar molecules to proteins, forming glycoproteins.
• Enzyme Production: Makes enzymes like glucose-6-phosphate for the cell.
rER
55
What cell organelle has these functions:
• Lipid Synthesis: Makes complex lipids and helps detoxify drugs in liver cells (hepatocytes).
• Hormone Production: Synthesizes steroid hormones in cells like those in the testes, adrenal glands, and the corpus luteum.
• Lipid Resynthesis: Resynthesizes lipids in cells that absorb nutrients in the intestine.
• Calcium lon Storage: Releases and stores Ca++ ions in muscle cells.
• Cl- lon Concentration: Concentrates Cl- ions in stomach parietal cells.
• Golgi Apparatus Formation: May contribute to the formation of the Golgi apparatus.
sER
56
This cell organelle is an important part of the cell that helps sort, pack, and change materials, especially those that will be secreted from the cell. It also helps move these materials between different parts of the cell.
Golgi complex, also known as the Golgi apparatus,
57
The concave side of the Golgi, connected to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It contains a network of tubules and vesicles that receive materials from the ER.
Cis-face
58
The convex side of the Golgi, often facing away from the nucleus. It contains condensing vacuoles and is associated with secretory vesicles that mature here before being transported to other areas of the cell.
Trans-face
59
What cell organelle has these functions:
1. Processing substances: Works with the ER to form lysosomes, secretory vesicles, and other cytoplasmic components.
2. Polysaccharide synthesis: The Golgi complex has special enzymes called glycosyltransferases that help attach sugars to molecules, making them longer sugar chains. This process is important for creating complex molecules like glycoproteins.
3. Modifying secretory products: Modifies proteins and lipids that will be secreted from the cell (e.g., glycoproteins and glycolipids).
4. Packaging products: Packages proteins and lipids produced by the
ER into vesicles for transport.
5. Concentration and storage: Stores and concentrates secretory products in condensing vacuoles, which later form secretory granules.
Golgi Complex
60
These are vesicles that hold material from outside the cell, like bacteria. The cell engulfs (eats) this material through a process called phagocytosis.
Heterophagosomes
61
Heterophagosomes: These are vesicles that hold material from outside the cell, like bacteria. The cell engulfs (eats) this material through a process called ?. During this process, the cell's outer membrane folds inward to wrap around the material and trap it inside the heterophagosome for digestion.
phagocytosis
62
These are vesicles that remove damaged parts inside the cell. They form when parts of the cell, like broken mitochondria or rough ER, stop working properly. These damaged parts are wrapped by a membrane from the smooth ER, creating the?
autophagosome
63
This cell organelle are spherical structures filled with enzymes that act like the cell's digestive system. They break down waste materials and cellular debris. They contain over 50 enzymes, with acid phosphatase being a key one.
Lysosomes
64
Lysosomes work best in what environment?
acidic environment
65
If this cell organelle is missing or defective, harmful substances can build up inside the cell, causing health problems.
lysosomal enzyme
66
These contain only hydrolytic enzymes. They are made in the Golgi complex and, once formed, lose their outer coating and become smooth vesicles.
Primary Lysosomes
67
Primary Lysosomes can merge with other structures to form
secondary lysosomes
68
Formed when primary lysosomes fuse with other substances, these lysosomes help digest the materials they encounter.
Secondary Lysosomes
69
These are the remnants after digestion. They contain materials that couldn't be broken down, like certain pigments or lipids.
Residual Bodies
70
In some cells, residual bodies are expelled, but in long-lived cells (like nerve or muscle cells), they can accumulate as ? because these cells don't divide and renew as often.
"wear-and-tear pigment" or "lipofuscin"
71
This cell organelle are membrane-bound vesicles that contain enzymes. They are slightly larger than lysosomes and can be found throughout the cytoplasm or near the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sER).
Peroxisomes
72
What cell organelle has these functions:
• Hydrogen Peroxide Metabolism: This cell organelle break down hydrogen peroxide, a toxic substance, into water using an enzyme called catalase.
• Fatty Acid Breakdown: They help in breaking down fatty acids through beta-oxidation, which produces acetyl CoA, a molecule used in energy production.
• Gluconeogenesis: This cell organelle assist in the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.
• Bacterial Defense: They produce hydrogen peroxide that can kill bacteria, using enzymes like urate oxidase, hydroxy acid oxidase, and D-amino acid oxidase.
Peroxisomes
73
Peroxisomes break down hydrogen peroxide, a toxic substance, into water using an enzyme called?
catalase
74
Is complex filamentous meshwork that provides structural stability for the maintenance of cell shape. It is important in cell movement and in the arrangement of cytoplasmic compartments
Cytoskeleton
75
What are the thinnest cytoskeletal components composed of the actin protein, which is associated with two accesory proteins - the troponin and tropomyosin
MICROFILAMENTS
76
This accessory protein is one of the major components of muscle cells.
Actin
77
in its thick filamentous form occurs only in muscle cells
Myosin
78
are intermediate in thickness between microtubules and microfilaments
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
79
intermediate filament bundles in the neurons
Neurofilaments
80
Intermidiate filaments in astrocytes or glial cells
Glial filaments (glial fibrilary acidic protein)
81
Intermediate filament in muscle cells
Desmin
82
are the thickest cytoskeleton components. They are fine tubular structures of variable length, with dense walls and a clear internal space.
Its functions:
- Maintenance of cell shape
- Axoplasmic transport in neurons
- Melanin dispersion in pigment cells
- Chromosome movements during mitosis
- Organization of Golgi complex
- Shuttling of vesicles within the cell
MICROTUBULES
83
is a crucial part of eukaryotic cells, containing genetic material (DNA) that directs cell activities.
nucleus
84
Single nucleus
(mononucleate),
85
Multiple nucleus
(multinucleate)
86
Cell that lacks nucleus
(enucleate)
87
Matrix inside the nucleus and the soluble phase of nuclear material
NUCLEAR SAP OR KARYOLYMPH
88
is a mix of DNA and proteins (histones and non-histones), which forms the genetic material of the cell.
Chromatin
89
Densely packed and stains dark, indicating inactive regions(chromatin)
Heterochromatin
90
Less packed, stains lightly, and is actively involved in transcription(chromatin)
Euchromatin
91
is where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is made and is usually prominent in cells making a lot of proteins.
nucleolus
92
Part of nucleolus that contains DNA for RNA production.
Pars amorpha
93
A threadlike structure part for nucleolus with two regions
Nucleolonema
94
Region of nucleolonema where RNA is synthesized
Pars fibrosa
95
Part of nucleoloma where ribosomal subunits are assembled.
Pars granulosa
96
The fluid inside the nucleus, providing support and a medium for reactions. It contains proteins, metabolites, ions, and water, and supports the nuclear matrix, which helps organize molecules and DNA.
NUCLEOPLASM
97
Are relatively short hair-like appendages capable of a vibratory beating or lashing movement.
Cilia
98
is a thin, filamentous appendages of cells responsible for swimming motility.
Flagellum (singular)
99
In cells whose principal function is absorption, e.g. intestine, the free surface has a varying number of cytoplasmic evaginations referred to as?
microvilli
100
Have long and rigid microvilli, present in spiral organ of hearing, and the receptor cells in a vestibular sensory receptors.
Stereocilia
101
Maintenance of most cell population and proliferation of cells during growth occur through a?
cell division
102
is the phase between divisions during which the exact replication of the genetic material takes place.
Interphase (inactive phase or resting period)
103
It is the period between the previous mitosis (telophase) and the beginning of DNA duplication
Gap1 or Preduplication phase
104
is a period during which no synthesis of DNA occurs. Most cells are in this stage while they perform their particular functions
gap
105
It is the period in which the replication and synthesis of DNA occurs. Resulting in two daughter chromosomes, each of which contain 50% original (parental) and 50% replicated (new DNA).
Synthesis phase
106
The daughter chromosomes are called ? as long as they remain attached to the centromere, where spindle microtubules are later attached
chromatids
107
It is the final preparation for cell division, which, include synthesis of tubulin for the spindle apparatus and accumulation of ATP for energy expensive mitosis.
Gap 2 or postduplication phase
108
is the dividing phase in which the DNA is equally distributed to two daughter cells, enabling them to perform the same function as the mother cell
Mitosis
109
Essential stages of mitosis feature four major events namely:
coiling, orientation, movement and uncoiling (COMU)
110
During what phase of mitosis did the chromatin coils extensively to form chromosomes.
As the nucleolar organizer DNA is coiled into its respective chromosomes, the nucleoli disperse and begin to disappear, nuclear membrane remains intact, two pairs of centrioles migrate to the opposite poles of the cell, and the mitotic spindle apparatus begins to assemble between the centriole pairs.
prophase
111
During what phases of mitosis did the nucleolus and the nuclear envelope begin to disappear, the chromosomes are arranged in the equatorial plane thus, having a same plane orientation, each chromosome splits lengthwise to form a pair of sister chromatids with its arms directed toward the pole of the cell.
metaphase
112
What is a small disk-like structure on each side of the centromere?
Kinetochore(centromere)
113
During what phases of mitosis did the sister chromatids separate and begin their movement toward opposite poles of the now elliptical cell along the mitotic spindle.
anaphase
114
During what phases of mitosis did the chromosomes begin to uncoil, nucleoli and nuclear envelopes appear as components of two separate nuclei at opposite ends of the cell. Cleavage furrow deepens in the middle of the elongated cell
telophase
115
Formation of a slender cytoplasmic bridge that contains microtubules called the?
cell body
116
is cytoplasm division where the bridge breaks and each of the two halves contain ½ of the midbody that retracts to their respective daughter cells thus completing the cell division
Cytokinesis
117
The combined effect of the two meiotic divisions is to partition the four chromatids of each bivalent into one of each of the four nuclei produced from each cell that entered?
meiosis
118
is the first stage in this stage of prophase 1(meiosis). The chromatin become visible but initially remain coiled.
Leptotene (thin thread)
119
is the second stage of prophase 1 in meiosis and in a process called synapsis, the chromosomes shorten and homologous chromosomes associate or meet.
Zygotene (yolk thread)
120
Individual pairs of chromosomes in close position are called
bivalent chromosomes
121
is the third stage of prophase 1 in meiosis that appears to be rod-like. The bivalent chromosomes shorten, thicken.
Pachytene (thick thread)
122
The exchange of chromosome segments called ? between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
crossing-over
123
is the fourth stage of prophase 1 in meiosis and characterized by a partial separation of the chromosome into four separate chromatids
Diplotene (double thread)
124
is the last stage of prophase 1 in meiosis and in which the chromosomes contact further thereby increasing the tightness of coiling. They are also found to move at the periphery of the nucleus
Diakinesis
125
During what phase of meosis does the kinetochores are equidistant above and below the spindle equator. The shape depends on the location of these kinetochores and on the number of position of the chiasmata within the bivalent.
Metaphase 1
126
During what phase of meosis does the chiasmata complete their terminalization, thus freeing the sister kinetochore pairs to move pole forward as the kinetochore fibers draw the halfbivalents apart.
Anaphase 1
127
During what phase of meosis does nuclear membrane reforms, nucleoli appear and cytokinesis occurs forming two daughter cells.
Telophase 1
128
During what phase of 2nd meotic division does spindle forms and the nuclear membrane disappears
Prophase 2
129
During what phase of 2nd meotic division does half bivalent are auto-oriented at the equator of the division II spindle.
Metaphase 2
130
During what phase of 2nd meotic division does they separate into their chromatid components.
Anaphase 2
131
During what phase of 2nd meotic division involves the formation of the nuclear membrane and cytokinesis.
Telophase 2
