Chapter 1 Flashcards
Life Span Development
examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior throughout the lifespan
Applied Research
meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems
Psychoanalytic Theory
The theory proposed by Freud that suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior
-the unconscious is a part of the personality about which a person is unaware
-it contains infantile wishes, desires, demands, and needs that, because of their disturbing nature, are hidden from conscious awareness
-Id, Ego, Superego
Id- instant gratification, “want it now”, child-like
Ego- Balance
Superego- Conscience, parent
Theory
broad, organized explanations + predictions concerning phenomena of interest (different explanations)
Case Studies
study that involves extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals
Classical Conditioning
a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response
ex: if the sound of a bell is paired with the presence of meat, a dog will learn to react to the bell alone in the same way it reacts to the meat- by salivating and wagging its tail
Cognitive Neuroscience Approaches
Develops: focus on cognitive development through lens of brain
Proceeds: approach considers internal, mental processes, but focus specifically on the neurological activity that underlies thinking problem solving
Contextual Perspective
the theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds
- suggests that a persons unique development cannot be properly viewed without seeing how that person is enmeshed within a rich social and cultural context
- development is unique and intimately tied to a persons social and cultural context; four levels of environment simultaneously influence individuals
Correlation Research
seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists; cannot be used to determine whether one factor causes changes in the other- only association or relationship
Cross-Sectional Research
research in which people of different ages are compared at the same point in time
-provide information about differences in development between different age groups
Evolutionary Perspective
behavior is a result of genetic inheritance from ancestors
-through a process of natural selection traits in a species that are adaptive to its environment are created
Theorist: Charles darwin
Experiment
process in which an investigator, called an experimenter, devises two different experiences for participants and then studies and compares the outcomes -seeks to discover causal relationships between various factors; change introduced in a carefully structured situation to see consequences of that change 2 groups: -treatment/experimental -control 2 Variable: -independent -dependent
Field Study
a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting
capture behavior in real-life settings
-participants may behave more naturally
-may be used in correlational studies and experiments
-often difficult to exert control over situation and environment
Humanistic Perspective
the theory contending that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control behavior
- each individual has the ability and motivation to reach more advanced levels of maturity, and people naturally seek to reach their full potential
- emphasizes free will, the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives instead of relying on societal standards
Information-processing Approaches
models that seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information
Laboratory Study
a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant
- holds events constant
- enables researchers to learn more clearly how treatment affect participants
Longitudinal Research
research in which the behavior of one or more participants in a study is measured as they age
- measures change over time
- following many individuals over time, researchers can understand the general course of change across some period of life
Naturalistic Observation
observe as it naturally occurs
Operant Conditioning
a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences
- individuals learn to operate on their environments to bring about desired consequences
- whether children and adults will seek to repeat a behavior depends on whether it is followed by reinforcement
Psychoanalytic Theory
What develops: focus on inner person, unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior
How development proceeds: behavior motivated by inner forces, memories and conflicts
Theorist: Freud
Perspective: psychodynamic
Psychosocial Development
the approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of one another, as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society
Theorist: Erik Erikson
Sequential Studies
researchers examine a number of different age groups at several points in time; a combination of longitudinal + cross-sectional studies; permits developmental researchers to tease out the consequences of age change versus age difference
Social-Cognitive Learning Theory
learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model Theorist: albert bandura + colleagues Occurs through 4 steps: 1. Attend/Perceive 2. Recall 3. Accurately reproduce 4. Motivated to carry out behavior ex: watching someone else's consequences, wait and see if someone else does before moving forward, we learn by observing
Sociocultural Theory
approach emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture
- as children play and cooperate with others, they learn what is important in their society and advance cognitively in their understanding of the world
Theoretical Research
designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge
Theory
broad, organized explanations + predictions concerning phenomena of interest (different explanations)
-set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypothesis (prediction stated in a testable way)
Physical Development
development involving the body’s physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep
-how these affect behavior
Cognitive Development
Development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person’s behavior
-emphasizes intellectual abilities, including learning, memory, problem solving, and intelligence
Personality Development
Development involving the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another change over the life span
Social Development
The way in which individuals interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life
Cohort
a group of people born at around the same time in the same place
Individual Differences
biological fact of life: people mature at different rates and reach developmental milestones at different points
Age Range
the life span is divided into broad age ranges:
-Prenatal period: the period from conception to birth
-Infancy to Toddlerhood: birth to age 3
-The preschool period: ages 3 to 6
-Middle childhood: ages 6 to 12
-Adolescence: ages 12 to 20
-Young Adulthood: ages 20 to 40
-Middle Adulthood: ages 40 to 65
-Late Adulthood: age 65 to death
These Broad age ranges are social constructions
Social Construction
a shared notion of reality; one that is widely accepted but is a function of society and culture at a given time
History-Graded Influences
biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment
ex: people who lived in new York city during the 9/11 terrorist attack on the World Trade Center experienced shared biological and environmental challenges due to the attack
Age-Graded Influences
biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in particular age group, regardless of when or where they are raised
ex: biological events such as puberty and menopause are universal events that occur at relatively the same time throughout all societies
Sociocultural-Graded Influences
the social and cultural factors present at a particular time for a particular individual, depending on such variables as ethnicity, social class, and subcultural membership
ex: sociocultural-graded influences will be considerably different for children who are white and affluent than for children who are members of a minority group and living in poverty
Non-Normative Life Event
specific, atypical events that occur in a person’s life at a time when such events do not happen to most people
ex: a child whose parents die in an automobile accident when she is six years old has experienced a significant non-normative life event
Continuous Change
gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels
Discontinuous Change
development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages
Critical Period
a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally
-the absence of certain kinds of environmental influences is likely to produce permanent, irreversible consequences for the developing individual
Sensitive Period
A point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences
- although the absence of particular environmental influences during a sensitive period may hinder development, it is possible for later experiences to overcome the earlier deficits
- not critical, easy to overcome
ex: learning a language
Nature Vs. Nurture
Nature- refers to traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from one’s parents
ex: influences whether eyes are blue or brown, have thick hair throughout life or eventually go bald, how good we are at athletics
Nurture- refers to the environmental influences that shape behavior
ex: impact of a pregnant mother use of alcohol or the amount and kind of food available to children or how parents discipline heir child
Psychodynamic Perspective
the approach stating that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts of which a person has little awareness or control
-the inner forces, which may stem from one’s childhood, continually influence behavior throughout the lifespan
Psychosexual Development
according to Freud, a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, focuses on a particular biological function or body part
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
- Oral- interest in oral gratification from sucking, eating, mouthing, biting
- Anal- gratification from expelling and withholding feces; coming to terms with society’s controls related to toilet training
- Phallic- interest in genitals; coming to terms with oedipal conflict, leading to identification with same-sex parent
- Latency- sexual concerns largely unimportant
- Genital- reemergence of sexual interests and establishment of mature sexual relationships
Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development
- Trust vs. Mistrust
+: feelings of trust from environmental support
-: fear and concern regarding others - Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
+: self-sufficiency if exploration is encouraged
-: doubts about self, lack of independence - Initiative vs. Guilt
+: Discovery of ways to initiate actions
-: guilt from actions or thought - Industry vs. Inferiority
+: development of sense of competence
-: feelings of inferiority, no sense of mastery - Identity vs Role Diffusion
+:awareness of uniqueness of self, knowledge of role to be followed
-:inability to identify appropriate roles in life - Intimacy vs. Isolation
+: development of loving, sexual relationships and close friendships
-: fear of relationships with other - Generativity vs Stagnation
+: sense of contribution to continuity of life
-: trivialization of one’s activities - Ego-integrity vs Despair
+: sense of unity in life’s accomplishment
-: regret over lost opportunities in life
Behavioral Perspective
the approach suggesting that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment
-if we know stimuli, we can predict the behavior
Behavior Modification
a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones
Cognitive Perspective
the approach that focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world
Bioecological Perspective
the perspective suggesting that different levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals
- Microsystem: everyday, immediate environment in which children lead their daily lives
- Mesosystem: connects the various aspects of the microsystem. Binds children to parents, students to teachers, employees to bosses.
- Exosystem: encompassing societal institutions such as local gov’t, community, schools, places of worship
- Macrosystem: larger cultural influences, including society in general, types of gov’t, religious and political value system,
- Chronosystem- underlies each of the previous systems. involves the way the passage of time, including historical events
Experimental Research
research designed to discover causal relationships between various factors
Naturalistic Observation
a type of correlational study in which some naturally occurring behavior is observed without intervention in the situation
Survey Research
a type of study where a group of people chosen to represent some larger population are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic
Independent Variable
the variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment
Dependent Variable
the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation
