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Psychology 208 > Chapter 1 > Flashcards

Chapter 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Life Span Development

A

examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior throughout the lifespan

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2
Q

Applied Research

A

meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems

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3
Q

Psychoanalytic Theory

A

The theory proposed by Freud that suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior
-the unconscious is a part of the personality about which a person is unaware
-it contains infantile wishes, desires, demands, and needs that, because of their disturbing nature, are hidden from conscious awareness
-Id, Ego, Superego
Id- instant gratification, “want it now”, child-like
Ego- Balance
Superego- Conscience, parent

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4
Q

Theory

A

broad, organized explanations + predictions concerning phenomena of interest (different explanations)

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5
Q

Case Studies

A

study that involves extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals

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6
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response
ex: if the sound of a bell is paired with the presence of meat, a dog will learn to react to the bell alone in the same way it reacts to the meat- by salivating and wagging its tail

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7
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience Approaches

A

Develops: focus on cognitive development through lens of brain
Proceeds: approach considers internal, mental processes, but focus specifically on the neurological activity that underlies thinking problem solving

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8
Q

Contextual Perspective

A

the theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds

  • suggests that a persons unique development cannot be properly viewed without seeing how that person is enmeshed within a rich social and cultural context
  • development is unique and intimately tied to a persons social and cultural context; four levels of environment simultaneously influence individuals
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9
Q

Correlation Research

A

seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists; cannot be used to determine whether one factor causes changes in the other- only association or relationship

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10
Q

Cross-Sectional Research

A

research in which people of different ages are compared at the same point in time
-provide information about differences in development between different age groups

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11
Q

Evolutionary Perspective

A

behavior is a result of genetic inheritance from ancestors
-through a process of natural selection traits in a species that are adaptive to its environment are created
Theorist: Charles darwin

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12
Q

Experiment

A 
process in which an investigator, called an experimenter, devises two different experiences for participants and then studies and compares the outcomes
-seeks to discover causal relationships between various factors; change introduced in a carefully structured situation to see consequences of that change
2 groups:
-treatment/experimental
-control
2 Variable:
-independent 
-dependent
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13
Q

Field Study

A

a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting
capture behavior in real-life settings
-participants may behave more naturally
-may be used in correlational studies and experiments
-often difficult to exert control over situation and environment

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14
Q

Humanistic Perspective

A

the theory contending that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control behavior

  • each individual has the ability and motivation to reach more advanced levels of maturity, and people naturally seek to reach their full potential
  • emphasizes free will, the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives instead of relying on societal standards
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15
Q

Information-processing Approaches

A

models that seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information

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16
Q

Laboratory Study

A

a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant

  • holds events constant
  • enables researchers to learn more clearly how treatment affect participants
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17
Q

Longitudinal Research

A

research in which the behavior of one or more participants in a study is measured as they age

  • measures change over time
  • following many individuals over time, researchers can understand the general course of change across some period of life
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18
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

observe as it naturally occurs

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19
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences

  • individuals learn to operate on their environments to bring about desired consequences
  • whether children and adults will seek to repeat a behavior depends on whether it is followed by reinforcement
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20
Q

Psychoanalytic Theory

A

What develops: focus on inner person, unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior
How development proceeds: behavior motivated by inner forces, memories and conflicts
Theorist: Freud
Perspective: psychodynamic

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21
Q

Psychosocial Development

A

the approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of one another, as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society
Theorist: Erik Erikson

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22
Q

Sequential Studies

A

researchers examine a number of different age groups at several points in time; a combination of longitudinal + cross-sectional studies; permits developmental researchers to tease out the consequences of age change versus age difference

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23
Q

Social-Cognitive Learning Theory

A 
learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model
Theorist: albert bandura + colleagues
Occurs through 4 steps:
1. Attend/Perceive
2. Recall
3. Accurately reproduce
4. Motivated to carry out behavior
ex: watching someone else's consequences, wait and see if someone else does before moving forward, we learn by observing
24
Q

Sociocultural Theory

A

approach emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture
- as children play and cooperate with others, they learn what is important in their society and advance cognitively in their understanding of the world

25
Q

Theoretical Research

A

designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge

26
Q

Theory

A

broad, organized explanations + predictions concerning phenomena of interest (different explanations)
-set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypothesis (prediction stated in a testable way)

27
Q

Physical Development

A

development involving the body’s physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep
-how these affect behavior

28
Q

Cognitive Development

A

Development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person’s behavior
-emphasizes intellectual abilities, including learning, memory, problem solving, and intelligence

29
Q

Personality Development

A

Development involving the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another change over the life span

30
Q

Social Development

A

The way in which individuals interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life

31
Q

Cohort

A

a group of people born at around the same time in the same place

32
Q

Individual Differences

A

biological fact of life: people mature at different rates and reach developmental milestones at different points

33
Q

Age Range

A

the life span is divided into broad age ranges:
-Prenatal period: the period from conception to birth
-Infancy to Toddlerhood: birth to age 3
-The preschool period: ages 3 to 6
-Middle childhood: ages 6 to 12
-Adolescence: ages 12 to 20
-Young Adulthood: ages 20 to 40
-Middle Adulthood: ages 40 to 65
-Late Adulthood: age 65 to death
These Broad age ranges are social constructions

34
Q

Social Construction

A

a shared notion of reality; one that is widely accepted but is a function of society and culture at a given time

35
Q

History-Graded Influences

A

biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment
ex: people who lived in new York city during the 9/11 terrorist attack on the World Trade Center experienced shared biological and environmental challenges due to the attack

36
Q

Age-Graded Influences

A

biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in particular age group, regardless of when or where they are raised
ex: biological events such as puberty and menopause are universal events that occur at relatively the same time throughout all societies

37
Q

Sociocultural-Graded Influences

A

the social and cultural factors present at a particular time for a particular individual, depending on such variables as ethnicity, social class, and subcultural membership
ex: sociocultural-graded influences will be considerably different for children who are white and affluent than for children who are members of a minority group and living in poverty

38
Q

Non-Normative Life Event

A

specific, atypical events that occur in a person’s life at a time when such events do not happen to most people
ex: a child whose parents die in an automobile accident when she is six years old has experienced a significant non-normative life event

39
Q

Continuous Change

A

gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels

40
Q

Discontinuous Change

A

development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages

41
Q

Critical Period

A

a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally
-the absence of certain kinds of environmental influences is likely to produce permanent, irreversible consequences for the developing individual

42
Q

Sensitive Period

A

A point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences

  • although the absence of particular environmental influences during a sensitive period may hinder development, it is possible for later experiences to overcome the earlier deficits
  • not critical, easy to overcome
    ex: learning a language
43
Q

Nature Vs. Nurture

A

Nature- refers to traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from one’s parents
ex: influences whether eyes are blue or brown, have thick hair throughout life or eventually go bald, how good we are at athletics
Nurture- refers to the environmental influences that shape behavior
ex: impact of a pregnant mother use of alcohol or the amount and kind of food available to children or how parents discipline heir child

44
Q

Psychodynamic Perspective

A

the approach stating that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts of which a person has little awareness or control
-the inner forces, which may stem from one’s childhood, continually influence behavior throughout the lifespan

45
Q

Psychosexual Development

A

according to Freud, a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, focuses on a particular biological function or body part

46
Q

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

A
  1. Oral- interest in oral gratification from sucking, eating, mouthing, biting
  2. Anal- gratification from expelling and withholding feces; coming to terms with society’s controls related to toilet training
  3. Phallic- interest in genitals; coming to terms with oedipal conflict, leading to identification with same-sex parent
  4. Latency- sexual concerns largely unimportant
  5. Genital- reemergence of sexual interests and establishment of mature sexual relationships
47
Q

Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development

A
  1. Trust vs. Mistrust
    +: feelings of trust from environmental support
    -: fear and concern regarding others
  2. Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
    +: self-sufficiency if exploration is encouraged
    -: doubts about self, lack of independence
  3. Initiative vs. Guilt
    +: Discovery of ways to initiate actions
    -: guilt from actions or thought
  4. Industry vs. Inferiority
    +: development of sense of competence
    -: feelings of inferiority, no sense of mastery
  5. Identity vs Role Diffusion
    +:awareness of uniqueness of self, knowledge of role to be followed
    -:inability to identify appropriate roles in life
  6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
    +: development of loving, sexual relationships and close friendships
    -: fear of relationships with other
  7. Generativity vs Stagnation
    +: sense of contribution to continuity of life
    -: trivialization of one’s activities
  8. Ego-integrity vs Despair
    +: sense of unity in life’s accomplishment
    -: regret over lost opportunities in life
48
Q

Behavioral Perspective

A

the approach suggesting that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment
-if we know stimuli, we can predict the behavior

49
Q

Behavior Modification

A

a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones

50
Q

Cognitive Perspective

A

the approach that focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world

51
Q

Bioecological Perspective

A

the perspective suggesting that different levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals

  • Microsystem: everyday, immediate environment in which children lead their daily lives
  • Mesosystem: connects the various aspects of the microsystem. Binds children to parents, students to teachers, employees to bosses.
  • Exosystem: encompassing societal institutions such as local gov’t, community, schools, places of worship
  • Macrosystem: larger cultural influences, including society in general, types of gov’t, religious and political value system,
  • Chronosystem- underlies each of the previous systems. involves the way the passage of time, including historical events
52
Q

Experimental Research

A

research designed to discover causal relationships between various factors

53
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

a type of correlational study in which some naturally occurring behavior is observed without intervention in the situation

54
Q

Survey Research

A

a type of study where a group of people chosen to represent some larger population are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic

55
Q

Independent Variable

A

the variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment

56
Q

Dependent Variable

A

the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation

Psychology 208 (4 decks)

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