Chapter 1 Flashcards
The life span is… (5 things)
- Multidirectional
- Multicontextual
- Multicultural
- Multidisciplinary
- Plastic
Scientific Method
A way to answer questions that requires empirical research and data based conclusions
What are the 5 steps in the scientific method?
- Question
- Hypothesize
- Test
- Conclude
- Report
Hypothesis
A specific prediction that can be tested
Empirical Evidence
Evidence based on data from scientific observation or experiments; not theoretical
Replication
The repetition of a study, using different participants
Nature
General term for the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception
Nurture
General term for all the environmental influences that affect development after an individual is conceived
Both _____ and the ________ affect every characteristic
Genes; the environment
Epigenetics
Explore how environmental forces alter genetic expression
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Term used to describe an infant’s unexpected death; when a seemingly healthy baby, usually between 2 and 6 months old, suddenly stops breathing and dies while asleep.
How can SIDS be prevented?
Back sleeping (discovered by Susan Beal)
Life Span Perspective
An approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood.
Infancy
0 to 2 years
Early Childhood
2 to 6 years
Middle Childhood
6 to 11 years
Adolescence
11 to 18 years
Emerging Adulthood
18 to 25 years
Adulthood
25 to 65 years
Late Adulthood
65+ years
Growth can be both __________ and ______________
Continuous; discontinuous
Critical Period
A time when a particular type of developmental growth (in body or behavior) must happen if it is ever going to happen (ex: fetal development of limbs)
Sensitive Period
A time when a certain type of development is most likely to happen or happens most easily, although it may still happen later with more difficulty (ex: learning a language)
Ecological-Systems Approach (Bioecological Theory)
By Urie Bronfenberner.
The view that in the study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life
The 5 systems in the ecological-systems approach
Microsystems, Exosystems, Macrosystems, Chronosystems, and Mesosystems
Microsystems
Immediate surroundings (family, peers)
Exosystems
Local institutions (school, church)
Macrosystems
Larger social settings (cultural values, economic policies, political processes)
Chronosystems
Time systems (historical conditions)
Mesosystems
Connections among the other systems
Science of Human Development
Science that seeks to understand how and why people change or remain the same over time
Cohort
Group defined by the shared age of its members who move through life together and experience the same historical events and cultural shifts
Socioeconomic Status (SES) (AKA Social Class)
Person’s position in society as determined by income, residence, and education
Culture
A system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior and assumptions
Social Construction
An idea that is based on shared perceptions, not on objective reality
ex: age-related terms, like “yuppie”
Difference-Equals-Deficit Error
The mistaken belief that some deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard
Guided Participation
Lev Vygotsky
Teaching cultural knowledge, skills, and habits through mutual involvement (such as school)
Ethnic Group
People whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion
Race
A group of people regarded as distinct from other groups on the base of appearance, typically skin color
Biological differences are not signified by _______ _________
Outward appearance
Methylation
During the first hours of life, the silencing of certain genes by biochemical elements
Every trait is influenced by _________, but _______ alone don’t determine development
Genetics; genes
Plasticity
Human traits can be molded but people still maintain a certain durability of identity
Dynamic Systems
View of human development as an ongoing, ever changing interaction between a person’s physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of their environment, including family and society
Differential Sensitivity
The idea that some people are more vulnerable than others are to certain experiences, usually because of genetic differences
Theory
A comprehensive and organized explanation of many phenomena; usually a generality
Developmental Theory
A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret andnioluminatentjentohusandsnof observations that have been made about human growth.
Provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development.
Psychoanalytic Theory
Theory of human development by Sigmund Freud that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior
Oral Stage
Birth to 1 year
*Lips, tongue, gums
Sucking and feeding are most stimulating activities
Anal Stage
1 to 3 years
*Anus
Toilet training is the most important activity
Phallic Stage
3 to 6 years
*Penis
Boys are proud of theirs and girls wonder why they don’t have one
Latency Stage
6 to 11 years
Interlude where sexual needs are quiet and psychic energy is put into conventional activities (school, sports)
Genital Stage
Adolescence and Adulthood
*Genitals
Seek sexual stimulation and sexual satisfaction in heterosexual relationships
Goal of life is to love and to work
How we resolve psychoanalytic conflicts determines _______ __________
Personality patterns
Trust vs. Mistrust
Birth to 1 year
Babies must either trust that others will care for their basic needs OR develop mistrust about the care of others
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
1 to 3 years
Children either become self sufficient in many activities OR they will doubt their own abilities
Initiative vs. Guilt
3 to 6 years
Children either want to undertake many adult like activities OR internalize the limits and prohibitions set by parents.
They either feel adventurous or guilty.
Industry vs. Inferiority
6 to 11 years
Children busily learn to be competent and productive in mastering new skills OR feel inferior and unable to do what they wish they could
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Adolescence
Teens try to figure out “Who am I?” and establish sexual, political, and vocational identities OR are confused about what roles to play
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Adulthood
Young adults seek companionship and love OR become isolated from others out of fear of rejection and disappointment
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Adulthood
Middle aged adults contribute to the next generation through meaningful work, creative activities, and raising a family OR they stagnate
Integrity vs. Despair
Adulthood
Older adults try to make sense out of their lives, either seeing life as a meaningful whole OR despairing at goals never reached
Both Freud and Erikson believe adult problems echo _______ _______
Childhood conflict
Erikson emphasizes ______ and ______ in his developmental stages
family; culture
Freud emphasizes _______ ______ in his psychoanalytic stages
sexual urges
Behaviorism (AKA learning theory)
Theory of human development that studies observable behavior.
Describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.
John B. Watson
Conditioning
According to behaviorism, the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place.
Term emphasizes the importance of repeated practice.
Classical Conditioning (AKA Respondent Learning)
Learning process in which a meaningful stimulus gradually comes to be connected with a neutral stimulus that had no special meaning before the learning process began.
Ivan Pavlov
Operant Conditioning (AKA instrumental conditioning)
Learning process in which a particular action is followed either by something desired or by something unwanted
BF Skinner
Rewards
Pleasant consequences
Punishments
Unpleasant consequences
Reinforcement
Technique for conditioning a particular behavior in which that behavior is followed by something desired
Social Learning Theory (Modeling)
Extension of behaviorism emphasizing that other people influence each person’s behavior. The theory is that even without specific reinforcement, everyone learns many things through observing and imitating others.
Albert Bandura
Cognitive Theory
Theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. This theory suggests that our thoughts shape out attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
Jean Piaget
Sensorimotor Stage
Birth to 2 years
Infants use senses and motor abilities to understand the world. Learning is active with no conceptual or reflective thought. Infants develop object permanence and begin to think through mental actions.
Preoperational Stage
2 to 6 years
Children think magically and poetically and use language to understand the world. Egocentric thinking leads them to perceive the world from their perspective. Imagination flourishes and language becomes a significant means of self expression and of influences from others.
Concrete Operational Stage
6 to 11 years
Kids understand and apply logical operations (principles) to interpret experiences objectively and rationally. Thinking is limited to what they can personally sense and experience. Applying logical abilities teaches kids concepts of conservation, number, classification, and other scientific ideas.
Formal Operational Stage
12 years to adulthood
Teens and adults think about abstraction and hypothetical concepts and reason analytically, not just emotionally, and can be analytical about things they’ve never experienced. They take a more theoretical approach to experience.
Cognitive Equilibrium
A state of mental balance
Cognitive Disequilibrium
Imbalance creating confusion
Leads to cognitive growth through adaptation
Assimilation
New experiences are interpreted to fit into old ideas
Accomodation
Old ideas are restructured to include new experiences
Humanism
Theory that stresses the potential of all human beings for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs regardless of culture, gender, or background
Abraham Maslow
Basic Needs (according to humanism)
- Physiological
- Safety
- Love
- Esteem
- Self Actualization
Evolutionary Theory
Belief that nature works to ensure that each species survives and reproduces
Scientific Observation
Method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants’ behavior in a systematic and objective manner- in a natural setting, lab, or in searches of archival data
Experiment
Research method in which the researcher tries to determine the cause and effect relationship between two variables by manipulating the independent variable and then observing and recording the ensuing changes in the dependent variable
Survey
Research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, questionnaires, or some other means
Case Study
An in depth study of one person, usually requiring personal interviews to collect background information and various follow up discussions, tests, questionnaires, etc.
Cross Sectional Research
Research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics
Longitudinal Research
Research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed
Cross Sequential Research (AKA cohort-sequential or time-sequential research)
Hybrid research design in which researchers first study several groups of different people of different ages and then follow those groups over the years
Correlation
A number that indicates the degree of relationship between 2 variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will or won’t occur when the other variable does or doesn’t
Does correlation equal causation?
NO!!!
Positive Correlation
Variables increase and decrease together
Negative Correlation
One variable increases while the other decreases
Zero Correlation
No connection is evident between two variables
+1.0 is most _______ while -1.0 is most ___________
positive; negative
Quantitative Research
Research that provides data that can be expressed with numbers, like ranks or scales
Qualitative Research
Research that considers qualities over quantities. Descriptions of particular conditions and participants’ expressed ideas are often part of these studies.
Code of Ethics
Set of moral principles
Informed Consent
Participants must understand and agree to the research procedure and know what risks are involved
Canadian Psychological Association’s 4 Guiding Principles
- Respect for the dignity of persons
- Responsible caring
- Integrity in relationships
- Responsibility to society
