Chapter 1-3 Flashcards
Increase in height is an example of
growth
Children will often reach puberty at different times. This is an example of
individual differences
Lifespan stages of development occur in the following order:
prenatal, infancy, childhood.
This perspective of motor development suggests that perceiving is experiencing and that perception and motor action are connected.
Gibson’s ecological perspective
The __________ phase of the developmental continuum occurs during infancy.
Rudimentary
__________ is progress towards a full-functioning, biological state.
Maturation
__________ is a collection of qualities set at birth that account for many of our traits (e.g., hair and eye color)
Heredity/Phenotype
To study how children develop the skill of hopping, a researcher obtains one group of children and examines their hopping at 4, 5, 6, and 7 years. This is an example of a(n) __________ research design.
longitudinal/microgenetic longitudinal
A(n) __________ research design includes elements from both the cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.
sequential
The developmental systems perspective reflects the notion that development occurs from the interaction of people in their environmental contexts. T/F
True
The information-processing view of development compares the brain to a telephone T/F
False
Aging is the increased capacity to manage one’s own body T/F
False
As people age, deterioration of some functions (e.g., vision, hearing) is unavoidable. T/F
True
Choose three theoretical views of motor development. Compare how the three views explain motor development.
The developmental systems perspective takes a look at how both biological and environmental systems influence one’s motor development as it changes.
This is also similar to that of the environmental context theory as it questions on how contexts (objects, people, culture, affordances) can have influence on an individual’s personal development. For example the affordances to certain toys may contribute to child’s motor development.
The ecological systems theory also contributes to the idea of the influences of the environment. The way that it is done through this theory is by taking a look at what has a direct effect on the development while also taking a look at indirect influences. The systems that are looked at include of the Microsystem, the mesosystem, the ecosystem, the macrosystem and the chronosystem. This can be applied to motor development depending on the physical activity that is done within the family in which influences motor development (Microsystem).
_____________________is located near the center of the brain and controls input and output to and from the brain, as well as the sensation of pain and attention
Thalamus
____________________ is a region of the brain in partnership with the pituitary gland that controls the hormonal processes of the body as well as temperature, mood, hunger, and thirst
Hypothalamus
The _____________ controls complex motor functions such as walking, balance, posture, and general motor coordination.
Cerebellum
The _____________ contains nerve tracts for coordination and involuntary influences on posture and other autonomic movements
Pons
The __________________reflex movement caused by visual and auditory stimuli
Blinking
These are masses of nerve cells found deep within the cerebral hemispheres. Control posture and gross movements.
Basal ganglia
______________ is an area located in the middle, top part of the brain that helps control fine motor muscles.
cerebral cortex/motor cortex/primary motor cortex
_________________ is an area of motor cortex in the frontal lobe of the brain. It is responsible for actual execution of movements, and has a critical role in the control of speed and force of actions.
Primary motor area/premotor cortex
___________________ is located in the opercular and triangular sections of the inferior frontal gyrus. The function of this area is the understanding of language, speech, and the control of facial neurons
Broca’s area
The part of the brain stem that directly connects with the spinal cord. Contains tracts that regulate vital internal processes (e.g. respiration, HR & BP).
Medulla
The ______________________contains nerve tracts for coordination and involuntary influences on posture and other autonomic movements
Pons
Boys experience a more intense growth spurt than girls do because boys have a great amount of testosterone in their body. T/F
True
During postnatal development, the ___________________ grow at a fastest rate than other body parts in moving toward the adult model of body proportions.
legs
Endomorphs have lean body types and find it more difficult to build muscle. T/F
False
Fat and muscle cells grow in size. This is called _______________.
Hypertrophy
Females tend to mature after males do? T/F
False
Head size in the very young may have biomechanical implications for motor skill and performance. T/F
True
Midgrowth spurt occurs in every 7 year old T/F
False
The anthropometric measure of head circumference estimates
brain growth
The major milestone of sexual maturation in females is known as
menarche
The gold standard for measuring body composition is
dexa
The study of that which is concerned with body measurement is called ______________.
anthropometry
__________________ refers to the area(s) near the ends of long bones where new bone cells are formed and deposited so that the bones grow in length.
a) Primary ossification centers
b) Secondary ossification centers
c) Epiphyseal plates
d) b and c
e) a, b, and c
d) b and c
Muscle mass increases rapidly in boys up to about age 17 and ultimately accounts for _______% of men’s body weight
56
In young adulthood, the proportion of lean body weight often ____________ as a result of _____________ in fat weight.
decreases; increases
There is a rapid increase of _____ in the first 6 months after birth, and the highest peak weight velocity occurs in the first month.
fat
Which of the following is not a “biological” mechanism for assessing age
skeletal age
As people begin to age, it is likely that their somatotype becomes less
mesomorphic
The pituitary gland produces __________ hormone, which is responsible for activating the adolescent growth spurt.
growth
developmental systems perspective
human development is the product of changing relations between the developing person and his or her changing multilvel environmental contexts
ecological systems include:
the home, school, culture, and social influences (family, peers, coaches, etc.)
epigenesis
the idea that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between one’s biological characteristics (including heredity) and the environment.
the developmental systems perspective
human development is the product of changing relations between the developing person and his or her changing multilevel contexts
what are the two multilevel contexts referred by the developmental systems perspective
environmental contexts and biological systems
what is the quantitative study of change?
a change in number or amount, such as height, weight, or reaction-time
what is the qualitative study of change?
a change in structure, process, pattern, or behavior (example: balance or walking)
this is more complex
what is motor development?
motor development is the study of change in motor behavior as influenced by biological and environmental factors
Growth is the change in ______.
size
Development is the change in __________________.
level of functioning
Motor behavior in other words refers to an individual’s _____________.
Performance
Maturation is…
the timing and tempo of progress toward the mature biological state.
What is the life-span perspective?
based on theory that the developmental process extends beyond puberty and young adulthood.
What is the multidisciplinary approach?
behavior in any domain (cognitive affective and psychomotor) is the product of many influences
What does age give an estimate of?
when a specific behavior may appear but tells little about why it emerges at a specific time
Age tells us a lot about why specific behaviors emerge. True or false?
False
It tells us when a specific behavior MAY occur but NOT why.
The developmental process is ______________ & _____________ from conception to death.
continuous, observable
What are the 5 major goals of the developmentalist?
1) Describe the characteristics of change (referring to behavior, function & appearance)
2) Establish when change occurs
3) Describe what causes change
4) Determine whether change can be predicted.
5) Find out whether change is individual or universal.
Environmental contexts that influence development of motor behavior include of…
ecological systems and affordances
Biological influences on the development of motor behavior include of…
heredity, maturation, self-organizing properties
What is the word for the biological traits received from parents?
heredity
How many chromosomes are in human cells?
46 chromosomes or 23 pairs
Where are genes found and what do they influence?
Genes are found in chromosomes and influence traits such as eye color, height, weight, muscle fiber, general body type, skeletal
What does heredity refer to?
to a set of qualities fixed at birth that account for many individual traits and characteristics.
Growth refers to observable changes in ________ and represents an increase in _______________.
quantity, body size
Maturation refers to when _________________________ occur.
specific biological events
Maturation is an _____________ of developmental events and the progress/tempo towards the ___________________.
internal time table; mature biological state
Affordances are…
the opportunities for action that objects, events, or places in the environment provide
in other words they are what provide stimulus for motor development
What does “developmentally appropriate” refer to?
the instruction (program) and practice of activities appropriate for the level and needs of the individual
What does “experience” refer to?
to the conditions within the environment that may alter or modify various developmental characteristics through the learning process
What is the word for the relatively permanent change resulting from practice or past experience?
Learning
Readiness is…
the combination of maturation and experience that prepares an individual to acquire a skill or understanding
Adaptation is…
the process of altering one’s behaviors to interact effectively with the environment.
The complex interplay between the individual and the environment.
What type of behavior is the product of biological characteristics and environmental influences?
Motor behavior
What type of development refers to growth proceeding longitudinally from the head to feet?
cephalocaudal development
What type of development refers to growth proceeding from the center of the body to its periphery?
proximodistal development
In proximodistal development the wrists, hands and fingers grow before the trunk region & shoulders.
True or false?
False
It is the opposite, the trunk region and shoulders growth before the wrists, hands, and fingers.
What is the process of growing old?
aging
note: it is characterized as the deteriorated capacity to regulate the internal environment and survival
What are the 9 assumptions about development?
1) It is a continual and cumulative process (note: the only thing that is constant is change)
2) All domains of development are interrelated (note: everything that we do is connected)
3) There is a wide range of individual differences
4) Environmental context plays a major role in development
5) There are critical and sensitive periods in development.
6) Development is aided by positive stimulation
7) There is much plasticity in human development.
8) Motor skill development is a multifaceted, dynamic phenomenon
9) With advanced aging, it is inevitable that most abilities will regress.
A __________ period is the window of opportunity to learn a skill.
critical
these are NOT detrimental to our lives, but it can cause difficulty later on
ex: writing, ABCs
A _____________ period occurs in the first to eight weeks of gestation.
sensitive
the reason why is that teratogens can affect
Early experiences have a profound effect on development. True or false?
True
Without positive stimulation kids may seek attention in bad ways. True or false?
True
This can occur not only in toddler years but in teenage years
Motor development is not prewired, but self-organizing. True or false?
True
What are some things that we are prewired to do?
to breath, eat, walk, sex, etc.
The ____________________ presents the relationship of behavior to specific age-related stages and phases
developmental continuum
Stages are tightly connected to our age. True or false?
True
Stages are the common ___________ that occur and suggests ____________ differences.
milestones, qualitative
_________ are transitions over time not fixed to age.
Phases
Note: it underscores the relatively continual & overlapping characteristics of development
What are the stages of life span development in order?
Prenatal - conception to birth
Infancy - birth to 2 years
Childhood - 2 to 12 years
Adolescence - 12 to 18 years
Adulthood - 18 years and older
The fetal period occurs from ________ to birth.
8 weeks
what are the two stages within the prenatal period?
embryonic and fetal period
The begininning of many motor and psychological activities such as language, symbolic thought and sensorimotor coordination occurs at what stage of development?
Infancy
During early childhood (2-6yrs) _______________ awareness and ability to care for onself occurs.
peceptual movement
During later childhood (6-12 yrs) __________ and mastery of some academic skills occur.
refinement
What occurs during adolescence?
puberty, accelerated growth, secondary sex characteristics, ability to reproduce, voice change,
Adolescents are not concerned about their identity and independence. True or false?
False
adolescents are concerned about their identity and independence
Adulthood can be split into 3 stages that include of:
young adulthood, middle age, older adulthood
The 7 Phases include of:
1) Reflective/spontaneous movement - 3rd fetal to 1 year
2) Rudimentary - birth to 2 yrs
3) Fundamental movement skills (FMS) - 2 to 6 yrs
4) Sports skills
5) Growth and refinement
6) Peak performance (22-25 F, 28-30 M)
7) Regression
Reflective movement refers to…
involuntary motor responses
Spontaneous movement refers to…
stereotypic rythmic patterns of motion that appear in the absence of any known stimuli
ex: jumping
What are examples of locomotor skills? And in which phase does this occur?
Running & jumping
and it occurs in the phase of fundamental movement skills
What are examples of nonlocomotor skills? In which phase does this occur?
twisting, turning, stretching, bending
fundamental movement skills (FMS)
Throwing and kicking are examples of ____________ skills that are developed during the fundamental movement skills phase.
manipulative
Psychomotor slows down during regression. True or false?
True
What decreases during the regression phase?
cardiovascular capacity, muscle strength & endurance, neural function and flexibility
What increases during the regression phase?
body fat
Why is research needed?
to create awareness, to understand normal vs abnormal, to improve health and optimize motor performance, & knowledge enhances understanding
What are the 3 research designs?
- Cross-sectional
- longitudinal
- Intevention
What are the two types of longitudinal designs?
Microgenetic (development of T2DM)
Sequential (rolling recruitment)
What theories agree with the environmental context theory?
the ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner’s)
&
Gibson’s ecological perspective
Describe Gibson’s Ecological Perspective
States that individuals can directly perceive information from the environment and act with a reasonable response
It states that our environment provides affordances
“perceiving is experiencing”
Describe the ecological systems theory. (Bronfenbrenner’s)
It involves the setting or environments (contexts) in which individuals develop as five distinct systems: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem
What supports the biological systems theory?
- The Information-Processing View
- Coordinative structures
- Dynamic Systems Theory
- Neuronal group selection theory
- Constraints model
Describe the Information-processing view
it depicts the mind as a system through which inflormation flows in the context of a computer.
Hardware (Brain & CNS)
Software (mental processes)
Central processing (planning)
Output (motor response)
Describe coordinative structures.
Regulation and control of movement is executed by groups of muscles and joint variable act as a basic unit. (this is the notion of synergies)
Describe dynamic systems.
suggests that coordination and control emerge as a result of the dynamic properties of the muscle collectives
an importance of the dynamic and self-organizing properties of the motor system
The __________ view states that behavior is tied to maturation.
Maturation
The learning-behavior view includes of:
Observational learning (Bandura) - modeling (ex:bobo doll/aggression)
Social learning theory (learning from social norms)
The cognitive-developmental view (Piaget) states that
children are not passive learners, they seek out experiences, and that play is important
_____ is an important medium for intellectual development as behaviors are tested.
Play
Genotype is the…
total genetic inheritance
note: the probability for a given trait, not a guarantee
Phenotype is the…
visible characteristics
_____ is the basic unit of heredity found within a chromosome.
Gene
Everything that takes place consciously, unconsciously, voluntary or as a reflex has its primary initiation within the _________________.
nervous system
What are the three primary functions of the nervous system?
Sensory function
Integrative function (includes memory & thought processes)
Motor Function
The central nervous system includes of the _________ and the ________.
spinal cord, brain
note: it is developed at 7 weeks of gestation BUT not matured
The peripheral nervous system include of _____________.
all nerve fibers
note: they are the lines of communication
What are the functions of the brain stem?
sets rhythm of breathing & controls the rate & force of breathing, metabolic function, regulation of posture, involuntary reflexes
What happens in the cerebral cortex?
higher order critical thinking and information processing
fine motor skills
What kind of movements is the basal ganglia in charge of?
fundamental gross movements
it is made up of a group of nuclei located in the inner layers of the cerebrum
What is the cerebellum responsible for?
Coordination and balance (vestibular awareness), postural adjustments
its function is to determine the coordinated sequence of muscle contractions during complex movements
What is a transmission pathway and is important in reflex behavior?
the spinal cord
The ______ is the principle integrative area of the NS.
brain
The peripheral nervous system is made up of two systems that are the:
autonomic system (involunary control: heart, lungs, etc.)
somatic system (voluntary control, skeletal muscles)
What two types of nerve fibers make up the peripheral nervous system?
The afferent and the efferent
What do the afferent nerve fibers do?
they transmit sensory information into the spinal cord and brain
What do the efferent nerve fibers do?
they transmit motor impulses away from brain to periphery (skeletal muscles)
Neural impulse is an _________________.
electrochemical process
The _________, is the basic strutural unit of the nervous system.
neuron, or nerve cell
_______ speeds up action potential.
Myelin
________, is a neuron and all of the muscle fibers.
Neuromuscular/Motor Unit
The motor pathways include of the ____________ tracts and _______________ tracts.
ascending; descending
Impulse conduction is when…
neurons send information through their axons in the forms of brief impulses, or waves, of electricity in the form of single electrical clicks called action potentials.
nerve conduction velocity is affected by:
the presence or absense of myelin around the axon
the axonal cross section diameter (the larger the axon is the faster the speed of conduction)
the urgency of information (conduction is faster when it concerns movement)
_________________ is the impulse conducted when the action potential jumps from one of the nodes to another.
Saltatory conduction
What is the sequence of CNS development?
1) Cell proliferation
2) Migration
3) Integration
4) Differentiation (specialized)
5) Myelination
6) Cell death
Pruning is the…
cutting of what we do not need at the moment but has the ability to grow back
ex: second language
Cell death kills…
cells that give individual differences such as knowing the differences between mosquitoes
With increasing age, brain plasticity ________.
declines
The child who misses a critical period or “opportunity” may not develop the brains circuitry to its full potential for a specific function. True or false?
True
Describe the brain structure from 2 - 8 weeks during gestation.
long, hollow tube on the back of the embryo
describe the brain structure at birth.
1/4 of adult weight
the midbrain is the most fully developed.
Describe the brain structure after birth.
the nerve cell size increases, other supporting cells called neuroglia are formed, and the myelin develops, causing the brain to double in volume.
During the first __________ babies will babble using all the sounds in all the languages of the world.
6 months
The brain structure by _______ years are similar to adults.
6
By ___ years about half of the connections have died off in the average child.
10
What is the struture that connects both hemispheres for brain communication?
the corpus callosum
What is the order of maturity of the brain?
1) Occiptal (visual)
2) Parietal (somatosensory)
3) Temporal (auditory & memory)
4) Frontal (memory & motor)
Jody Miller had epileptic seizeres and they had to remove the right hemisphere of her brain, what is this surgery called?
hemispherectomy
Jody Miller’s case brought awareness of ____________.
Brain plasticity
Significant plasticity may occur in 3 conditions:
1) during normal brain development when the immature brain first begins to process sensory information through adulthood.
2) in events of learning
3) in a case of brain injury to compensate for lost functions or maximize remaining functions
Anthropology is the study of…
nature, distribution, and significance of biological variation in humans
What is the study of biological growth and body measurement?
Anthropometry
Physical growth curves are…
distance curves that are predictable but not linear
it plots growth over a period of time
What type of curve indicates the different phases of growth?
the velocity curve
The prenatal period presents the greatest variation in human growth and development. True or false?
true
What are the major physical growth changes from the germinal period (0-2 weeks) ?
cell differentiation begins
inner and outer mass formed
What are the major physical growth changes from the embryonic period (2-8 weeks) ?
CNS relatively developed
human form takes shape (ears, eyes, arms, legs)
internal organs begin to develop (heart, lungs, reproductive, liver, kidneys)
What are the major physical growth changes from the fetal period (12-36 weeks) ?
12 weeks: movement, sex can be distinguided (if in correct position), bone replaces cartilage (starts with jaw), head growth, facial features
16 weeks: growth spurt in lower part of the body, fingerprints and footprints emerge
20 weeks: skin structures form
24 weeks: eyes, eyelids formed, head hair forming
28 weeks: Internal organs functioning (baby drinks amniotic fluid and it is constantly replaced, stomach, intestine, to learn how to swallow), age of viability
32-26 weeks: rapid weight gain, layer of fat forming beneath the skin, bones of head are soft
When does the second most dramatic growth change occur?
in adolescence
it is influenced by genetics and hormones
At what age range do girls have their pubescent growth spurt?
10-13 years
At what age range do boys have their pubescent growth spurt?
12-15 years
What precedes the rise in sex hormones, LH and FSH?
the exogenous GnRH pulses that cause the onset of puberty
What is a good candidate for causing GnRH to rise?
leptin (a hormone that supresses appetite.
Puberty is dependent on ______________.
bodyweight
It is known that leptin has receptors in the hypothalamus which ___________ GnRH.
synthesises
If someone is deficient in _______, they may fail to initiate puberty.
leptin
Ghrelin and leptin both increase with the onset of puberty. True or false?
True
Describe the neurohormonal process.
1) The hypothalamus releases GnRH
2) LH & FSH is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
3) The LH & FSH causes ovaries and testes to grow and produce estradoil and testosterone.
4) Rising levels of estradiol and testosterone produce the body changes of female and male puberty.
The onset of the neurohormonal process may precede the first visible body changes by 1-2 years. True or false?
True
Who has ends up with more fat mass?
Females
males gain muscle
What are the three somatotypes?
endomorphy
mesomorphy
ectomorphy
Describe the endomorphs.
They are not sports people
they are soft and round in contour
it is easy for them to put on weight
Describe the mesomorphs
they have well-defined muscularity and balanced body
it is easy for them to build muscle
Describe ectomorphs
leanest body type
it is hard for them to put muscle
What body part grows at a faster rate than other body parts?
the legs
The absence of what hormone may be the cause of miscarriages?
thyroxine
that is why the 1st ultrasound is done at 9 months
What are the two measures of length?
recumbant height, and standing height
When does bone density decrease in women?
during pregnancy if they do not have enough calcium
during the third decade
The total bone loss by age 70 is approximately _______%.
25-30
Bone loss estimates twice as much for women at age 70. True or false?
False
bone loss estimates for men at age 70 about half of what women experience (12-15%)
body weight is…
the total body mass (all tissue components)
lean body mass + fat = body weight
body composition is..
a description of the various independent tissue components - namely, lean body mass (fat-free weight), and body fat.
MRIs are used to…
see fat around organs
the disadvantage is that people may be claustrophobic, it is expensive, one has to be trained and be a licensed technician, and to see data one has to be a doctor
What is the gold standard or criterion objective?
DEXA
it is accurate BUT give visceral muscle
license is needed since it has an X-ray
it can be a teratogen for females that don’t know they are pregnant
it is limited to some sizes
What are the advantages and disadvantages of under water weighing?
A: cheaper, no license needed
D: not accurate for younger and older individuals
D: water is stagnant for a long time and can lead to bacteria –> illnesses
What does the bod pod measure?
fat mass and lean tissue
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the pea pod or bod pod?
they are accurate, and cheaper than DEXA
claustrophobia
jewelry must be taken off
person must go to the restroom first
limit in height and weights
describe the use of bioelectrical impedance.
it is a field measurement, where electrical waves are sent to the body and provides BMI, muscle mass, etc.
it is accurate as it measures hips and waist and measures activities
can’t measure child unless they are with a legal guardian
Describe skin calipers
they are useless, it is inaccurate, you need 500 participants to have some accuracy, and it is difficult to use for obese people
describe the waist/hip ratio
it is cheap and effective
does not mention risk factors, or body fat
Describe the use of BMI
it is not accurate for children and old adults
cheap, easy, relatively accurate
weight (kg)/ height^2 meters
below 20: underweight
20 - 24.9: healthy
25 - 29.9 : overweight
over 30: obese
What are three types of ages?
chronological age
biological age (morphological age, dental age, sexual age)
skeletal age (best indicator of maturity)
What does the Tanner staging determine?
sexual age
can only be done by certified practitioner
weaker in reliability
How many teeth should there be when fully grown?
32
What motor performance can be affected by body length and weight?
walking
heavier babies tend to walk later
What affects the motor performance of locomotor performance?
body fat
Somatotype can have an affect on _____________ performance.
strength
There are __________ differences to motor performance.
gender
