Chapter 1

Question 1

Define Hyperplasia

Answer 1

Increase in number of cells in an organ or tissue. It is a normal process that occurs due to trophic signals or increased demand.

Question 2

Erythroid hyperplasia is typically seen in people living at _____ altitude. Since low O2 evokes ______ which promotes the survival of RBC precursors in the marrow.

Answer 2

Erythroid hyperplasia is typically seen in people living at high altitude. Since low O2 evokes erythropoetin or EPO which promotes the survival of RBC precursors in the marrow.

Question 3

Soaponafication of fat derived from peripancreatic fat cells exposed to pancreatic enzymes is a typical feature of ____ necrosis. Lipase, released from pancreatic acinar cells during an attack of acute pancreatititis _____ fat into FA + glycerol. FFA bind to ____ which form soaps = soaponafication. This taking up of calcium creates ____calcemia in the blood, which is typical of pancreatitis. Pancreatitis causes sudden-onset abdominal pain, distention, and vomiting.

Answer 3

Soaponafication of fat derived from peripancreatic fat cells exposed to pancreatic enzymes is a typical feature of fat necrosis. Lipase, released from pancreatic acinar cells during an attack of acute pancreatititis hydrolyzes fat into FA + glycerol. FFA bind to calcium which form soaps = soaponafication. This taking up of calcium creates hypocalcemia in the blood, which is typical of pancreatitis. Pancreatitis causes sudden-onset abdominal pain, distention, and vomiting.

Question 4

Define metaplasia

Answer 4

Conversion of one differentiated cell pathway to another

Question 5

In GERD, metaplasia of esophageal _____ epithelium is converted to _____ epithelium due to chronic GERD. The lesion is charictarized by intestine-like epithelium composed of goblet cells.

GERD results in _______ metaplasia of the esophagus.

Answer 5

In GERD, metaplasia of esophageal squamous epithelium is converted to columnar epithelium due to chronic GERD. The lesion is charictarized by intestine-like epithelium composed of goblet cells.

GERD results in glandular metaplasia of the esophagus.

Question 6

Squamous metaplasia occurs in the bronchiole epithelium of _____.

Answer 6

Squamous metaplasia occurs in the bronchiole epithelium of smokers.

Question 7

_____ calcification is associated with an increased serum calcium concentration or hypercalcemia. Any disorder that causes ______ leads to calcification of the lungs, renal tubules, and blood vessels.

Dystrophic calcification has its origin in direct cell ______.

Answer 7

Metastatic calcification is associated with an increased serum calcium concentration or hypercalcemia. Any disorder that causes hypercalcemia leads to calcification of the lungs, renal tubules, and blood vessels.

Dystrophic calcification has its origin in direct cell injury.

Question 8

Parathyroid adenomas produce a ton of _____ hormone.

Answer 8

Parathyroid adenomas produce a ton of parathyroid hormone.

Question 9

Define atrophy

Answer 9

Diminution in the size or function of an organ. It is seen in areas of vascular insufficiency or chronic inflammation & may result from disuse.

Atrophy is an adaptive response to stress, in which the cell shuts down its functions.

Atrophy of the brain occurs in Alzheimers disease.

Question 10

Dysplasia is a ____neoplastic change:

1) _____ in size and shape of cells
2) _____, _____, and _____chromatism of the nuclei
3) _____ arrangement of the cells within the epithelium.

Answer 10

Dysplasia is a preneoplastic change:

1) Variations in size and shape of cells
2) Enlargement, irregularity, and hyperchromatism of the nuclei
3) Disorderly arrangement of the cells within the epithelium.

Question 11

Dysplasia of the bronchial epithelium is a reaction of respiratory epithelium to _____ in tobacco smoke. It is _____ if patient stops smoking, but is considered preneoplastic and may progress to carcinoma.

Answer 11

Dysplasia of the bronchial epithelium is a reaction of respiratory epithelium to carcinogens in tobacco smoke. It is reversible if patient stops smoking, but is considered preneoplastic and may progress to carcinoma.

Question 12

_____ cardiac myococytes have more cytoplasm and larger nuclei than normal cells. The cells have _____ mRNA, rRNA, & protein. Hypertrophy results due to _____ regulation.

Answer 12

Hypertrophic cardiac myococytes have more cytoplasm and larger nuclei than normal cells. The cells have increased mRNA, rRNA, & protein. Hypertrophy results due to transcriptional regulation.

Question 13

Dystrophic calcification reflects underlying cell ______. Serum levels of calcium are ______ and the calcium deposits are located in previously damaged tissue. Intrauterine Toxoplasma ______ results in dystrophic calcification & microcephaly, hydrocephalus, and microgyra.

Answer 13

Dystrophic calcification reflects underlying cell injury. Serum levels of calcium are normal and the calcium deposits are located in previously damaged tissue. Intrauterine Toxoplasma infection results in dystrophic calcification & microcephaly, hydrocephalus, and microgyra.

Question 14

______ swelling reflects acute, reversible (sublethal) cell injury. It results from the impairment of cell volume regulation, a process that controls ionic concentrations in the cytoplasm. This regulation for ______ involves the plasma membrane, the plasma membrane sodium pump, and the supply of ATP. Injurious agents may interfere with these processes. Accumulation of ______ in the cell causes it to swell.

Answer 14

Hydropic swelling reflects acute, reversible (sublethal) cell injury. It results from the impairment of cell volume regulation, a process that controls ionic concentrations in the cytoplasm. This regulation for sodium involves the plasma membrane, the plasma membrane sodium pump, and the supply of ATP. Injurious agents may interfere with these processes. Accumulation of sodium in the cell causes it to swell.

Question 15

______ is a term that reffers to material that exhibits a reddish appearance when stained with H&E. Alcoholic Mallory hyaline is composed of cytoskeletal ______ filaments, whereas pulmonary hyaline consists of plasma proteins deposited in alveoli.

Answer 15

Hyaline is a term that reffers to material that exhibits a reddish appearance when stained with H&E. Alcoholic Mallory hyaline is composed of cytoskeletal intermediate filaments, whereas pulmonary hyaline consists of plasma proteins deposited in alveoli.

Question 16

a1-antitrypsin abnormally folded protein ______ in the liver of patients with a1-antitrypsin deficiency.

a-Synuclein accumulates in neurons in the substantia nigra of patients with ______ disease.

Answer 16

a1-antitrypsin abnormally folded protein accumulate in the liver of patients with a1-antitrypsin deficiency.

a-Synuclein accumulates in neurons in the substantia nigra of patients with Parkinson disease.

Question 17

______ refers to the storage of carbon particles in the lung & regional lymph nodes. These particles accumulate in alveolar ______ and are also transported to hilar and mediastinal lymph nodes, where the indigestible material is stored within macrophages. This condition is innocuous (not harmful).

Answer 17

Anthracosis refers to the storage of carbon particles in the lung & regional lymph nodes. These particles accumulate in alveolar macrophages and are also transported to hilar and mediastinal lymph nodes, where the indigestible material is stored within macrophages. This condition is innocuous (not harmful).

Question 18

Coal miners develop pulmonary ______ owing to the presence of toxic dust such as ______.

Hemosiderosis is the intracellular storage of ______.

Answer 18

Coal miners develop pulmonary fibrosis owing to the presence of toxic dust such as silica.

Hemosiderosis is the intracellular storage of iron.

Question 19

Fetuses exposed to hyperglycemia in utero may develop ______ of the pancreatic B cells, which may secrete insulin autonomously & cause ______ glycemia @ birth.

Answer 19

Fetuses exposed to hyperglycemia in utero may develop hyperplasia of the pancreatic B cells, which may secrete insulin autonomously & cause hypoglycemia @ birth.

Question 20

When the rate of dissolution of the necrotic cells is faster than the rate of repair = ______ necrosis. It’s mechanism is due to ______ leukocytes (neutrophil, eosiniphil, and basophil) that have hydrolases that digest the dead cells.

Answer 20

When the rate of dissolution of the necrotic cells is faster than the rate of repair = liqueface necrosis. It’s mechanism is due to polymorphonuclear leukocytes (neutrophil, eosiniphil, and basophil) that have hydrolases that digest the dead cells.

Question 21

______ necrosis is seen on necrotizing granulomas where cells fail to retain their outlines. Caseous necrosis is characteristic of primary ______. Primary tuberculosis has nonspecific symptoms like cough, fever, and loss of appetite. ______ complexes are seen in primary tuberculosis.

Answer 21

Caseous necrosis is seen on necrotizing granulomas where cells fail to retain their outlines. Caseous necrosis is characteristic of primary tuberculosis. Primary tuberculosis has nonspecific symptoms like cough, fever, and loss of appetite. Ghon complexes are seen in primary tuberculosis.

Question 22

In coagulative necrosis the outline of the cell is ______.

Answer 22

In coagulative necrosis the outline of the cell is retained.

Question 23

Pyknosis = the irreversible ______ of chromatin in the nucleus of a cell undergoing necrosis or apoptosis.

Answer 23

Pyknosis = the irreversible condensation of chromatin in the nucleus of a cell undergoing necrosis or apoptosis.

Question 24

Hummoral and cellular arms of the immune system fight off ______ infections.

Answer 24

Hummoral and cellular arms of the immune system fight off viral infections.

Question 25

______ is a response to trophic signals or increased functional demand, it depends upon the expression of growth promoter genes called proto-oncogenes.

Answer 25

Hypertrophy is a response to trophic signals or increased functional demand, it depends upon the expression of growth promoter genes called proto-oncogenes.

Question 26

Coagulative necrosis is characterized by a massive influx of ______ into the cell.

Answer 26

Coagulative necrosis is characterized by a massive influx of calcium into the cell.

Question 27

Most common form of atrophy is ______ functional demand.

Answer 27

Most common form of atrophy is decreased functional demand.

Question 28

Myocardial infarcts cause ______ necrosis. Nuclear ______ (karrhyorrexis & karyolysis) is a hallmark of coagulative necrosis.

Answer 28

Myocardial infarcts cause coagulative necrosis. Nuclear fragmentation (karrhyorrexis & karyolysis) is a hallmark of coagulative necrosis.

Question 29

______ is a wear and tear pigment of aging that accumulates in brain, heart, & liver. Pathological accumulation of lipofuscin is implicated in ______ disease. The presence of Lipofuscin reflects lipid ______ of cellular membranes due to inadequate defense against activated oxygen radicals.

Answer 29

Lipofuscin is a wear and tear pigment of aging that accumulates in brain, heart, & liver. Pathological accumulation of lipofuscin is implicated in Alzheimer’s disease. The presence of Lipofuscin reflects lipid peroxidation of cellular membranes due to inadequate defense against activated oxygen radicals.

Question 30

Hemosiderin is a partially degraded form of ferriten that aggregates & is seen as yellow-brown granules in the cytoplasm that turn ______ with Prussian Blue. In hereditary hemochromatotosis, a genetic abnormality of iron absorption in the small intestine, excess iron is stored as ______ in the liver.

Answer 30

Hemosiderin is a partially degraded form of ferriten that aggregates & is seen as yellow-brown granules in the cytoplasm that turn blue with Prussian Blue. In hereditary hemochromatotosis, a genetic abnormality of iron absorption in the small intestine, excess iron is stored as hemosiderin in the liver.

Question 31

______ of transitional epithelium to glandular epithelium is seen in patients with chronic inflammation of the bladder called ______ glandularis. Metaplasia is a protective mechanism, but may be a harmful process. ______ transformation may occur in metaplastic epithelium.

Answer 31

Metaplasia of transitional epithelium to glandular epithelium is seen in patients with chronic inflammation of the bladder called cystitis glandularis. Metaplasia is a protective mechanism, but may be a harmful process. Neoplasmic transformation may occur in metaplastic epithelium.

Question 32

______ injury occurs due to occlusive cardiovascular disease, infection, transplantation, and shock. It occurs due to the interplay between transient ischemia and the re-establishment of blood flow (______). Initially, ischemia produces cell damage that leads to generation of free radical species to form ______ oxygen species. Oxygen radicals are formed inside cells via the ______ oxidase pathway and released from activated neutrophils.

Answer 32

Ischemia/ reperfusion injury occurs due to occlusive cardiovascular disease, infection, transplantation, and shock. It occurs due to the interplay between transient ischemia and the re-establishment of blood flow (reperfusion). Initially, ischemia produces cell damage that leads to generation of free radical species to form reactive oxygen species. Oxygen radicals are formed inside cells via the xanthine oxidase pathway and released from activated neutrophils.

Question 33

MI’s generate lipid ______. In lipid peroxidation, hydroxyl radicals remove a hydrogen atom from the unsaturated fatty acids of membrane phospholipids. The lipid radicals so formed react with ______ to form a lipd peroxide radical. This results in a loss of membrane ______ of cardiac myocytes.

Answer 33

MI’s generate lipid peroxidation. In lipid peroxidation, hydroxyl radicals remove a hydrogen atom from the unsaturated fatty acids of membrane phospholipids. The lipid radicals so formed react with oxygen to form a lipd peroxide radical. This results in a loss of membrane integrity of cardiac myocytes.

Question 34

______ is a programmed pathway of cell death triggered by cellular signals. It is a self defense mechanism that ______ cells infected with pathogen or those where genomic alterations have occured. With H&E stain apoptotic cells stain as acidophilic, eosinophilic, ______ bodies.

Answer 34

Apoptosis is a programmed pathway of cell death triggered by cellular signals. It is a self defense mechanism that kills cells infected with pathogen or those where genomic alterations have occured. With H&E stain apoptotic cells stain as acidophilic, eosinophilic, Councilman bodies.

Question 35

______ of DNA is a hallmark of cells undergoing necrosis and apoptosis, but apoptotic cells are detechted by demonstrating nucleosomal ______.

DNA fragmentation yields ____philic bodies.

Answer 35

Fragmentation of DNA is a hallmark of cells undergoing necrosis and apoptosis, but apoptotic cells are detechted by demonstrating nucleosomal laddering.

DNA fragmentation yields acidophilic bodies.

Question 36

______ (structural differentation loss within cell or group of cells)

Anaplasia = cells divide rapidly but do ______ bear any resemblance to the normal cells, whether in structure or function.

Answer 36

Anaplasia (structural differentation loss within cell or group of cells)

Anaplasia = cells divide rapidly but do not bear any resemblance to the normal cells, whether in structure or function.

Question 37

______ (organ or part of organ missing)

Answer 37

Aplasia (organ or part of organ missing)

Question 38

______ (below-average number of cells, especially when inadequate)

Answer 38

Hypoplasia (below-average number of cells, especially when inadequate)

Question 39

______ (proliferation of cells)

Answer 39

Hyperplasia (proliferation of cells)

Question 40

______ (abnormal proliferation)

Answer 40

Neoplasia (abnormal proliferation)

Question 41

______ (change in cell or tissue phenotype)

Answer 41

Dysplasia (change in cell or tissue phenotype)

Question 42

______ (conversion in cell type)

Answer 42

Metaplasia (conversion in cell type)

Question 43

______ (development of new cell function)

Answer 43

Prosoplasia (development of new cell function)

Question 44

______ (connective tissue growth)

Answer 44

Desmoplasia (connective tissue growth)

Question 45

Interference with blood supply to tissues is ischemia. Total ischemia results in cell ______. Partial ischemia results in chronically reduced Oxygen supply which is compatible with cell viability, under these circumstances cell ______ is common.

Answer 45

Interference with blood supply to tissues is ischemia. Total ischemia results in cell death. Partial ischemia results in chronically reduced Oxygen supply which is compatible with cell viability, under these circumstances cell atrophy is common.

Question 46

Necrosis is a form of cell injury that results in the premature ______ of cells in living tissue by autolysis.

Answer 46

Necrosis is a form of cell injury that results in the premature death of cells in living tissue by autolysis.

Question 47

Myositis ossificans is a disease where bony trabeculae forms within striated ______. It is a form of osseous ______.

Answer 47

Myositis ossificans is a disease where bony trabeculae forms within striated muscle. It is a form of osseous metaplasia.

Question 48

Reactive oxygen species like catalase, myoloperoxidase, & superoxide dimutase are triggers of ______, but cytochrome ______ mediates apoptosis.

Answer 48

Reactive oxygen species like catalase, myoloperoxidase, & superoxide dimutase are triggers of apoptosis, but cytochrome C mediates apoptosis.

Question 49

If someone ingests a commercial solvent, liver damage will be that of ______ swelling. ______ changes of this injury are decreased stores of intracellular ______. Hydropic swelling occurs in infecions, ischemia, and toxins. Injurious agents cause hydropic swelling by increasing the ______ of the plasma membrane to sodium, damaging the sodium potassium pump, or interferring with the synthesis of ATP.

Answer 49

If someone ingests a commercial solvent, liver damage will be that of hydropic swelling. Reversible changes of this injury are decreased stores of intracellular ATP. Hydropic swelling occurs in infecions, ischemia, and toxins. Injurious agents cause hydropic swelling by increasing the permeability of the plasma membrane to sodium, damaging the sodium potassium pump, or interferring with the synthesis of ATP.

Question 50

During periods of ischemia, anaerobic glycolysis leads to the production of ______ (from pyruvate) & ______ intracellular pH, which leads to ______. Lack of O2 during MI blocks the production of ATP.

Answer 50

During periods of ischemia, anaerobic glycolysis leads to the production of lactate (from pyruvate) & decreases intracellular pH, which leads to necrosis. Lack of O2 during MI blocks the production of ATP.

Question 51

Fibrinoid necrosis is an alteration of injured blood vessels in which the insudation and accumulation of plasma ______ cause the wall to stain intensly red with eosin.

Answer 51

Fibrinoid necrosis is an alteration of injured blood vessels in which the insudation and accumulation of plasma proteins cause the wall to stain intensly red with eosin.

Question 52

Progeria is caused by mutations in the human ______ A gene. Lamins are ______ filament proteins that form a fibrous meshwork beneath the nuclear envelope. Defective lamin A makes the nucleus unstable which leads to cell injury and death. Progeria is defined by early cataracts, hair loss, atrophy of the skin, osteoporosis, and atherosclerosis which leads to a phenotype of premature ______.

Answer 52

Progeria is caused by mutations in the human lamin A gene. Lamins are intermediate filament proteins that form a fibrous meshwork beneath the nuclear envelope. Defective lamin A makes the nucleus unstable which leads to cell injury and death. Progeria is defined by early cataracts, hair loss, atrophy of the skin, osteoporosis, and atherosclerosis which leads to a phenotype of premature aging.

Question 53

Atrophy of an organ may be caused by interruption of key _____ signals, like decreased ACTH which can lead to adrenal insufficiency also known as an addisonian crisis.

Answer 53

Atrophy of an organ may be caused by interruption of key trophic signals, like decreased ACTH which can lead to adrenal insufficiency also known as an addisonian crisis.

Question 54

Prolonged exposure of the bronchi to tobacco smoke leads to squamous _____ of the bronchial epithelium. This metaplasia & all metaplasias are fully _____ to normal epithelia if the source of the injury (like smoking) is removed.

Answer 54

Prolonged exposure of the bronchi to tobacco smoke leads to squamous metaplasia of the bronchial epithelium. This metaplasia & all metaplasias are fully reverible to normal epithelia if the source of the injury (like smoking) is removed.

Question 55

Actinic keratosis is a form of ______ in sun exposed skin.

Dysplasia is a preneoplastic lesion in the sense that it is a necessary stage in the evolution to cancer. Unlike cancer however, these cells may return to ______.

______ is abnormal growth or development of cells, tissue, bone, or an organ & abnormal anatomic structure due to such growth.

Answer 55

Actinic keratosis is a form of dysplasia in sun exposed skin.

Dysplasia is a preneoplastic lesion in the sense that it is a necessary stage in the evolution to cancer. Unlike cancer however, these cells may return to normal.

Dysplasia is abnormal growth or development of cells, tissue, bone, or an organ & abnormal anatomic structure due to such growth.

Question 56

Renal cell carcinomas often secrete ______ which stimulates the growth of erythrocyte precursors of bone marrow by ______ programmed cell death. This typically results in ______ hematocrit due to bone marrow hyperplasia which affects the erythroid lineage.

Answer 56

Renal cell carcinomas often secrete erythropoetin which stimulates the growth of erythrocyte precursors of bone marrow by inhibiting programmed cell death. This typically results in increased hematocrit due to bone marrow hyperplasia which affects the erythroid lineage.

Question 57

Cervical dysplasia may lead to ______. Cervical dysplasia cells may display hyperchromatic nuclei, a larger nucleus to cytoplasm ratio, and disorderly tissue arrangements.

Answer 57

Cervical dysplasia may lead to neoplasia. Cervical dysplasia cells may display hyperchromatic nuclei, a larger nucleus to cytoplasm ratio, and disorderly tissue arrangements.

Question 58

If someone ingests CCl4 (carbon tetrachloride) by mistake, they will go into acute ______ faliure. CCL4 is metabolized by the ______ function oxygenase system (P450).

Answer 58

If someone ingests CCl4 (carbon tetrachloride) by mistake, they will go into acute liver faliure. CCL4 is metabolized by the mixed function oxygenase system (P450).

Question 59

Psoriasis is a disease of the dermis and epidermis that is characterized by persistent epidermal ______.

Answer 59

Psoriasis is a disease of the dermis and epidermis that is characterized by persistent epidermal hyperplasia.

Question 60

Carbon tetrachloride and acetominophen are well-studied ______. Each is metabolized by the same cytochrome P450 mixed-function oxidase system located in the ______ endoplasmic reticulum.

Answer 60

Carbon tetrachloride and acetominophen are well-studied hepatotoxins. Each is metabolized by the same cytochrome P450 mixed-function oxidase system located in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Question 61

The presentation of viral proteins to the immune system in the context of a self major histocompatibility complex on the cell ______ immunizes the body vs the invader and elicits both killer cells and antiviral antibodies.

Answer 61

The presentation of viral proteins to the immune system in the context of a self major histocompatibility complex on the cell surface immunizes the body vs the invader and elicits both killer cells and antiviral antibodies.

Question 62

a-1 antritrypsin deficiency is a heritable disorder in which mutations in the a-1 antritrypsin gene yeild accumulation of an insoluble ______ that accumulates in ______ cells. This causes cell injury and ______.

Answer 62

a-1 antritrypsin deficiency is a heritable disorder in which mutations in the a-1 antritrypsin gene yeild accumulation of an insoluble protein that accumulates in liver cells. This causes cell injury and cirrhosis.

Question 63

______ syndrome is a rare autosomal recessive disease characterized by early cataracts, hair loss, atrophy of the skin, osteoporosis, and accelerated atherosclerosis. Patients are also at risk for development of many cancers. Patients of Werner’s syndrome typically die in their 50’s due to cancer or cardiovascular disease. ______ is mutated in these patients.

Answer 63

Werner syndrome is a rare autosomal recessive disease characterized by early cataracts, hair loss, atrophy of the skin, osteoporosis, and accelerated atherosclerosis. Patients are also at risk for development of many cancers. Patients of Werner’s syndrome typically die in their 50’s due to cancer or cardiovascular disease. Helicase is mutated in these patients.

Question 64

Apoptosis detects and destroys cells that harbor mutations and maintain genetic consistency & prevent cancer. ______ binds to areas of DNA damage & activates proteins that arrest the cell in G1 of the cell cycle allowing time for DNA repair to proceed & it also directs DNA repair enzymes to the site of injury.

If the DNA damage cannot be repaired, p53 activates mechanisms that result in ______.

Answer 64

Apoptosis detects and destroys cells that harbor mutations and maintain genetic consistency & prevent cancer. p53 binds to areas of DNA damage & activates proteins that arrest the cell in G1 of the cell cycle allowing time for DNA repair to proceed & it also directs DNA repair enzymes to the site of injury.

If the DNA damage cannot be repaired, p53 activates mechanisms that result in apoptosis.

Question 65

Questions I got wrong:

Answer 65

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