Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

A&P II > chap 14-16 > Flashcards

chap 14-16 Flashcards

1
Q

NAME?

A

To separate: hematocrit- percentage by volume of red blood cells in a blood sample, determined by separating the red blood cells from the plasma

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

NAME?

A

Abnormal condition: leukocytosis- condition in which white blood cells are overproduced

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Aneurysm

A

Abnormal expansion of a blood vessel wall

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Angio-

A

Vessel: angiotensin- substance that constricts blood vessels

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Angina

A

A condition, such as a severe sore throat, in which spasmodic attacks of suffocating pain occur

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Ather-

A

Porridge: athersclerosis- deposits of plaque in arteries

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

Accumulation of fatty substances on the inner linings of arteries

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Brady-

A

Slow: bradycardia- abnormally slow heartbeat

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Coronary blood vessels are supplied from what vessel?

A

Aorta

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Diapedesis

A

Squeezing movement of leukocytes between the cells of blood vessel walls

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Diastol-

A

Dilation: diastolic pressure- blood pressure when the ventricle of the heart is relaxed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Embol-

A

Stopper: embolism- a mass lodging in and obstructing a blood vessel

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Erythr-

A

Red: erythrocyte- red blood cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Hemo-

A

Blood: hemoglobin- red pigment responsible for the color of blood

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

How do you compute cardiac output?

A

The total volume of blood pumped by the ventricle per minute, or simply the product of heart rate (HR) and stroke volume (SV).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

How do you compute heart rate?

A

Total bpm - your age

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

How do you diagnose the types of abnormal ECGs we discussed?

A

it will look abnormal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

How do you compute stroke volume?

A

SV (stroke volume ) x BPM = CO (Cardiac Output)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Infarction

A

When a localized area of muscular tissue is dying or dead due to insufficient supply of blood (as occurs in a heart attack)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

How is blood pressure regulated?

A

Monitored by Baroreceptors, Modified by Heart action, smooth muscle constriction, hormone action

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Ischemia

A

A decrease in blood supply to a bodily organ, tissue, or part caused by constriction or obstruction of the blood vessels

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Leukocytosis

A

Too many white blood cells in the blood

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Leukopenia

A

Too few white blood cells in the blood

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Pancytopenia

A

Too few red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets usually associated with a bone marrow tumor or aplastic anemia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Papill-

A

Nipple: papillary muscle- small mound of muscle projecting into a ventricle of the heart

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Phleb-

A

Vein: phlebitis- inflammation of a vein

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Plasmin

A

Protein-splitting enzyme that can digest fibrin in a blood clot

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Prolapse

A

The falling down or slipping out of place of an organ or part

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Septicemia

A

A systemic disease caused by pathogenic organisms or their toxins in the blood stream (blood poisoning)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Syn-

A

Together: syncytium- mass of merging cells that act together

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Systol-

A

Contraction: systolic pressure- blood pressure resulting from a single ventricular contraction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Tachy-

A

Rapid: tachycardia- abnormally fast heartbeat

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Thromb-

A

Clot: thrombocyte- blood platelet involved in the formation of a blood clot

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Thrombin

A

Blood-clotting enzyme that catalyzes formation of fibrin from fibrinogen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

What are all the parts of the heart we discussed?

A

Chambers, valves, major blood vessels, papillary muscles, chordae tendinae, skeleton, conduction system, etc.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Two ways Compliment works

A

Opsination, Membrane Attack Complex

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What are examples of non-protein nitrogenous substances?

A

Urea, uric acid, creatine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What are Starling’s forces?

A

Inword: Tissue Osmotic, Tissue Hydrostatic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

What are the “resistance” vessels?

A

arterioles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

What are the blood cell lineages? (mainly the top and bottom of the tree)

A

Erythroid, lymphocytes, and myelocytes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

What are the different types of anemia?

A

Aplastic and hemolytic anemia, sickle cell and thalassemia anemia, and iron deficiency and pernicious anemia.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

What are the 3 major intake vessels for the right atrium?

A

…

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

What are the distal steps of the extrinsic clotting pathways that we discussed?

A

…

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

What are the distal steps of the intrinsic clotting pathways that we discussed?

A

…

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

What are the key facts about basophils?

A

<1%, release Histamine (vasodilator) and Heparin (anticoagulant)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

What are the key facts about eosinophils?

A

1-3%, Parasite defense

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

What are the key facts about lymphocytes?

A

25-33%, B,T, and NK cells, Specific immune response.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

What are the key facts about monocytes?

A

3-9%, largest blood cells, leaves blood to become Macrophage, phagocytic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

What are the key facts about neutrophils?

A

most abundant, very phagocytic, first to arrive at infection

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

What are the layers of the heart wall?

A

Myocardium, Endocardium

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

What are the major layers of a blood vessel wall?

A

Tunica interna, Media and Externa

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

What are the major plasma proteins?

A

Albumins, Globulins, Fibrogens

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

What are the parts of whole blood when spun down?

A

Plasma, buffy coat, red cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

What are the pericardial layers of the heart?

A

Fibrous, Visceral, Parietal pericardium

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

What are the S1 and S2 heart sounds caused by?

A

S1: AV Valves closing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

What are the various types of WBCs?

A

Granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils) and agranulocytes (monocytes and lymphocytes)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

What causes aplastic and hemolytic anemia?

A

Radiation and toxic chemicals

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

What causes iron deficiency and pernicious anemia?

A

Lack of iron and inability to absorb B12

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

What chamber of heart responsible for pulmonary systolic pressure?

A

…

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

What chamber of heart responsible for systemic systolic pressure?

A

…

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

What do monocytes differentiate into?

A

macrophage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

What do the chambers of the heart do?

A

Atriums: prime ventricles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

What do the chordae tendineae of the heart do?

A

hold valves to they don’t prolapse

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

What do the major blood vessels of the heart do?

A

left and right coronary arteries originate near aortic valve, drain to coronary sinus in right atrium.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

What do the papillary muscles of the heart do?

A

articulate heart valves

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

What do the valves of the heart do?

A

The Peanuts Might Attack! (Tricuspid, Pulmonary, Mitral, Aortic)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

What do the waves in a normal ECG mean?

A

P Wave: Atrial Depolarization

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

What does the body make in low oxygen environments (e.g. high altitude)? Why?

A

RBCs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

What does the conduction system of the heart do?

A

provides pathway for cardiac stimulation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

What does the plasma protein Albumin do?

A

Most Common, Liver, Retains water

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

What does the plasma protein Fibrinogen do?

A

Liver, blood clotting

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

What causes sickle cell and thalassemia anemia?

A

Defective genes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

What does the plasma protein Globulins do?

A

alpha and beta: liver, transports lipids and vitamins. Gamma: Lymphatic tissue, antibodies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

What does the skeleton of the heart do?

A

provides rigid structure and electrical insulation to valves

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

What does the spleen do?

A

filter dead blood cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

What exactly causes blood to flow from one heart chamber to another?

A

Contraction of atrium and opening of AV Valve

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

What happens in capillaries?

A

substances are exchanged

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

What happens to the globin part of hemoglobin when broken down?

A

broken down into amino acids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

What ion is critical for blood clotting?

A

Ca2+

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

What is a murmur?

A

Abnormal heart sound

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

What is blood typing and what are the major antigens and antibodies involved?

A

Determining the presence of surface antigens on the cell membranes of RBCs. Blood has antibodies against the opposite antigens (blood types)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

What is filtration?

A

substances moving through capillary wall

81
Q

What is the ECG?

A

Electrocardiogram

83
Q

What is the function of hemoglobin?

A

Contains large amounts of RBCs, transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and then transport CO2 back from the tissues to the lungs.

84
Q

What is the major parasympathetic nerve to the heart?

A

The vagus nerve (cranial nerve 10)

85
Q

What is the primary insoluble protein in a clot?

A

Fibrin created from fibrinogen

86
Q

What is the sequence of blood flow through the heart?

A

Right Atrium, Tricuspid V, Right Ventricle, Pulmonary V, pulmonary Arteries, Lungs, Pulmonary Veins, Left Atrium, Mitral V, Left Ventricle, Aortic V

87
Q

What is the sequence of conduction system cocomponent firing in the heart?

A

Single Apaches Just Attack Books! (SA Node, Atrial Syncytium, Junctional Fibers, AV Node, AV Bundel, Bundle Branches)

88
Q

What is the universal donor?

A

O- because it has no antigens for A, B, or rh

89
Q

What is the universal recipient?

A

AB+ because it has antigens for both A, B and rh

90
Q

What layers of blood contain what parts?

A

Plasma: Water, electrolytes, proteins, wastes, nutrients, gasses

91
Q

What nutrient is required to prevent pernicious anemia?

A

Vitamin B12

93
Q

What specific part of the heart produces the pumping action?

A

Myocardium (cardiac muscle)

94
Q

What, in general, is going on in figure 15.22 on page 572?

A
95
Q

Where is the cardiac center and the vasomotor center located?

A

The medulla oblongata

96
Q

Why does the body make certain substances in low oxygen environments (e.g. high altitude)?

A

to move more O2

97
Q

plasma

A

liquid portion of blood

98
Q

formed elements

A

cells/cell fragments suspended in plasma

99
Q

base

A

Blood is a(n) ____. (7.35-7.45 pH)

100
Q

7.35-7.45

A

pH level of blood.

101
Q

acidosis

A

blood pH level of less than 7.35

102
Q

cell saver

A

blood from your body lost in surgery is put back in you afterwards

103
Q

antigen

A

substances that stimulate the creation of antibodies

104
Q

antibody

A

substance formed when an antigen stimulates it to be formed

105
Q

agglutination

A

when an antigen and antibody react together and clump

106
Q

B

A

Type A blood will have anti- __ antibodies.

107
Q

A or O

A

Type A blood will not have anti- __ antibodies.

108
Q

A

A

Type B blood will have anti- __ antigens.

109
Q

B or O

A

Type B blood will not have anti- __ antigens.

110
Q

A and B

A

Type O blood will have anti- __ antigens.

111
Q

O

A

Type O blood will not have anti- __ antigens.

112
Q

O

A

Type __ blood is the universal donor.

113
Q

AB

A

Type __ blood is the universal recipient.

114
Q

positive

A

Rh factor present

115
Q

negative

A

Rh factor not present

116
Q

erythroblastosis fetalis

A

Mother is Rh neg., Father is Rh pos. Mother may reject baby in the womb.

117
Q

RhoGam

A

shot given to mother who is Rh negative when the father is Rh positive

118
Q

prothrombin

A

What are the examples of plasma proteins?

119
Q

albumin

A

helps thicken blood, give it viscosity

120
Q

globulin

A

carry antibodies to fight infection

121
Q

fibrinogen and prothrombin

A

plasma proteins that help blood clot

122
Q

blood serum

A

plasma minus the clotting factors

123
Q

Platelets

A

3 types of formed elements:

124
Q

erythrocyte

A

name for red blood cells

125
Q

leukocyte

A

name for white blood cells

126
Q

thrombocyte

A

name for platelets

127
Q

granular leukocytes

A

WBCs with granules in their cytoplasm

128
Q

agranular leukocytes

A

WBCs with no granules in their cytoplasm

129
Q

eosinophils

A

types of granular leukocytes

130
Q

monocytes

A

types of agranular leukocytes

131
Q

neutrophil

A

granular leukocyte that carries out phagocytosis

132
Q

eosinophil

A

granular leukocyte that defends against parasites

133
Q

basophil

A

granular leukocyte that secretes heparin and function as a part of the inflammatory response

134
Q

heparin

A

prevents blood from clotting

135
Q

lymphocyte

A

agranular leukocyte that has B-lymphs or T-lymphs

136
Q

B-lymphocyte

A

lymphocyte that produces antibodies

137
Q

T-lymphocyte

A

lymphocyte that helps with immune response

138
Q

monocyte

A

agranular lymphocyte that performs phagocytosis and is an important part of the immune response

139
Q

platelet

A

formed element necessary for clotting

140
Q

120 days

A

lifespan of a red blood cell

141
Q

lymphatic tissue

A

tissues that go thru hematopoeisis

142
Q

liver

A

organs that dispose of broken cells

143
Q

aspiration biopsy cytology

A

diagnosis technique where myloid tissue is drawn out and examined

144
Q

stem cells

A

unspecialized cells from which differentiated cells develop sometimes taken from the umbilical cord

145
Q

biconcave

A

RBC’ s are what shape?

146
Q

more surface area and more flexibility

A

Why are RBCs biconcave?

147
Q

no nucleus or cytoplasm

A

Why can’t RBCs reproduce themselves?

148
Q

hemoglobin

A

red oxygen-carrying pigment in erythrocytes

149
Q

normacytic

A

state of normal-sized cells

150
Q

microcytic

A

state of smaller-sized cells

151
Q

macrocytic

A

state of larger-sized cells

152
Q

normachromic

A

state of normal-colored cells

153
Q

hypochromic

A

state of paler-colored cells; deficient of hemoglobin

154
Q

hyperchromic

A

state of darker-colored cells; too much hemoglobin

155
Q

oxyhemoglobin

A

formed when hemoglobin binds with oxygen

156
Q

carbominohemoglobin

A

formed when oxyhemoglobin releases oxygen and binds with the waste carbon dioxide

157
Q

hematocrit level

A

tells you the volume of RBCs

158
Q

buffy coat

A

White cells and platelets settled between formed cells and plasma

159
Q

polycythemia

A

overproduction of RBCs

160
Q

anemia

A

underproduction of RBCs or hemoglobin

161
Q

polycythemia

A

causes hemorrhages, hypertension, coagulation problems, clot formation, and overdistension of vessels

162
Q

polycythemia

A

treated by bleeding patient ever so often, removing bone marrow, or radiation treatment

163
Q

anemia

A

causes fatigue, weakness, sickness, paleness

164
Q

hemorrhagic anemia

A

decrease in RBCs b/c of major blood loss

165
Q

acute

A

___ hemorrhagic anemia usually cmes from trauma or surgery and can be easily resolved.

166
Q

chronic

A

___ hemorrhagic anemia usually comes from cancer or an ulcer and can only be resolved if the underlying cause is found and eliminated

167
Q

aplastic anemia

A

low RBC count and destruction of bone marrow after exposure to dangerous chemicals such as mercury or benzyne

168
Q

deficiency anemia

A

caused by inadequate supply of a substance that helps create RBCs or hemoglobin

169
Q

pernicious anemia

A

deficiency anemia caused by malfunction of stomach lining, autoimmunity, or genetics; not enough B12 Vitamin

170
Q

iron deficiency anemia

A

body does not get enough iron, which is vital to the creation of hemoglobin

171
Q

microcytic

A

When a body has an iron deficiency, its RBCs will be ____ and ____.

172
Q

hemolytic anemia

A

decrease in RBC lifespan that causes broken RBC pieces to build up; spleen will swell, liver impairment, gall stones

173
Q

jaundice

A

a type of hemolytic anemia in babies that causes their skin to turn orangish from the build up of pigment

174
Q

sickle cell anemia

A

abnormal hemoglobin causes premature destruction of RBCs

175
Q

thalassemia

A

abnormal hemoglobin produces abnormal numbers of strange-shaped RBCs

176
Q

thalassemia minor

A

carries the trait for thalassemia; will have chronic anemia

177
Q

thalassemia major

A

has thalassemia disease; RBCs quickly destroyed, body is deprived of oxygen, bone marrow swells and can cripple

178
Q

erythroblastosis fetalis

A

hemolytic anemia in babies

179
Q

leukocytosis

A

abnormally high WBC count; over 10 thousand WBCs per cubic mm; occurs b/c of bacterial infection or blood cancers

180
Q

leukopenia

A

abnormally low WBC count; under 5 thousand WBCs per cubic mm; occurs b/c of immune disorder like AIDS

181
Q

lymphoid neoplasm

A

cancer of blood arising from lymphocytes

182
Q

myeloid neoplasm

A

cancer of blood arising from monocytes, platelets, and RBCs

183
Q

multiple myeloma

A

cancer of B-lymphocytes known as plasma cells; constantly fighting infection; defective antibodies; frail bones; no treatment

184
Q

leukemia

A

characterized by leukocytosis of over 100,000 WBCs per cubic mm

185
Q

chronic lymphocytic leukemia

A

most common btwn. 62-65 yrs of age; mild symptoms if any; severe cases treated with chemo

186
Q

acute lymphocytic leukemia

A

disease in children 5-7; highly curable; fever, infection, bone pain, swollen lymphnodes and spleen; treated with chemo(85-100% survival rate)

187
Q

chronic myeloid leukemia

A

25-60 yrs old; fatigue, weight loss; abnormally high level of granulocytic WBCs and enlarged spleen

188
Q

Gleevec

A

treatment for seeking out abnormal myloid tissue and blocking it

189
Q

acute myeloid leukemia

A

quick symptoms: spongy bleeding gums, bone and joint pain; poor prognosis

190
Q

mononucleosis

A

virus found in saliva of infected person; leukocytosis of 12-18 thousand; large atypical lymphocytes; fever, enlarged lymphnodes/spleen; sore throat; resolved in 4-6 weeks

191
Q

prothrombin activator

A

formed when clotting factor from damaged tissue and clotting factors from plasma react together

192
Q

thrombin

A

formed from prothrombin when prothrombin activator reacts with clotting factors from the platelet plug

193
Q

fibrin

A

formed when thrombin reacts with fibrinogen

194
Q

Vitamin K

A

What vitamin stimulates the liver to produce thrombin?

195
Q

anti-coagulant

A

blood thinner, given after clot is formed

196
Q

heparin

A

shot form of anti-coagulant

197
Q

coumadin (warfarin)

A

pill form of anti-coagulant

198
Q

tissue plasminogen activators

A

dissolve clot; given during a heart attack

199
Q

thrombus

A

clot that stays where it was formed

200
Q

embolus

A

clot that breaks away from area it was formed and travels thru the circ. system

201
Q

hemophilia

A

disorder resulting from not producing one or more of the clotting factors

202
Q

hemophilia A

A

royal disease; lacks factor VIII; bleeding joints; can cripple

203
Q

Thrombocytopenia

A

around 15,000 platelet count (normal: 150,000) complete body bleeding; caused by mechanical destruction of platelets by way of heart valves or chemicals

A&P II (8 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions