Chap 11 - Gender and Sexuality Flashcards
1
Q
hijras
A
in India, this term is used to describe third-sex individuals, often individuals with biologically male genitalia who dress in ways that appear feminine but do not view themselves as either male or female
2
Q
biological sex
A
The physical characteristics that define male and female - anatomical and physiological characteristics related to reproduction
3
Q
Gender
A
incorporates all those features that a society associates with or considers appropriate for men and women
4
Q
women as a group earn less money than men - is this a sex or gender difference?
A
This is not a sex difference but a gender difference because it arises from societal forces that have created different expectations and outcomes for males and females in the workforce
5
Q
rare cases of sex chromosome abnormalities
A
a girl may have only one X chromosome or a boy may have three sex chromosomes (XYY or XXY)
intersex individuals: they have some combination of sex chromosomes, genitalia, hormones, and gonads that differ from the standard combination
6
Q
Female brains tend to have more gray-matter volume in some parts of the…
A
prefrontal cortex, which is located behind the forehead and is involved in decision making
7
Q
male brains have more gray-matter volume in…
A
subcortical temporal structures, which are located deep in the brain and contribute to auditory and visual processing, long-term memory, and emotions
8
Q
why might males have an advantage, in general, in mapping their perceptual experiences with actions (such as perceiving a ball moving quickly toward them and swinging a bat to make contact with the ball)?
A
the typical male brain shows a pattern of connections that largely operate within a single hemisphere moving from front to back or vice versa in either the left or right hemisphere
9
Q
why may be why females, in general, are able to combine analytical and intuitive thinking to reach solutions that are beneficial to a group?
A
the typical female brain shows a pattern of connections that go across the two hemispheres
10
Q
when do brain differences between the sexes emerge in development?
A
The differences are not evident in children’s brains but emerge during adolescence, suggesting they are connected to hormonal processes during puberty
11
Q
what alters the development of the brain and nervous system? For example, it signals the male brain to stop secreting hormones in a cyclical pattern so that males do not experience menstrual cycles at puberty
A
relative amount of testosterone
12
Q
estrogen affects the anatomy and physiology of which part of the brain?
A
hippocampus, which plays an important role in long-term memory and spatial orientation
13
Q
gender roles
A
A pattern of behaviors and traits that defines how to act the part of a female or a male in a particular society. (e.g., the roles of wife, mother, and woman for females and of husband, father, and man for males)
14
Q
gender-role norms
A
society’s expectations or standards concerning what males and females should be like
15
Q
gender stereotypes
A
Overgeneralized and largely inaccurate beliefs about what males and females are like. - generated by gender-role norms in each society
16
Q
where do many gender stereotypes originate?
A
with a grain of truth, and in the case of gender stereotypes, the grain may be the physical makeup of males and females - e.g., women’s ability to bear and nurse children
- communality
17
Q
communality
A
An orientation that emphasizes the well-being of others and includes traits of emotionality and sensitivity to others; considered feminine.
18
Q
agency
A
an orientation toward individual action and achievement that emphasizes traits of dominance, independence, assertiveness, and competitiveness; considered masculine
19
Q
what are viewed as the two fundamental psychological dimensions of human nature that are widespread across a variety of cultures?
A
Communion and agency
20
Q
today’s adults are more likely than those from prior decades to believe in male–female equality when it comes to what aspect?
A
competence
21
Q
men and women in the mid-1990s described themselves more similarly than men and women did 25 years earlier, largely because modern women saw themselves as having more…
A
agentic traits
22
Q
Most millennials, male and female, have what type of views about the roles for men and women?
A
egalitarian
23
Q
gender identity
A
Individuals’ basic awareness that they are either a male or a female.
24
Q
cis is Latin for
A
“on this side of”
25
trans is Latin for
“other side of”
26
Nonbinary
Individuals whose gender identity does not neatly fit into one of the two categories of gender (male, female) that most societies have prescribed.
27
gender similarities hypothesis
The hypothesis that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables:
- more similar to one another than they are different
28
Why do boys and girls engage in different play activities?
a combination of hormone-driven preferences and a society that promotes the “genderization” of children throughout their development
29
Females display greater abilities in what area?
verbal abilities
-One verbal task where females consistently outperform males by a small to medium margin is reading; also show a moderate advantage over males on writing tasks
30
Males outperform females on many tests of what task?
spatial ability, especially three-dimensional mental rotations, starting in childhood and persisting across the life span - Training in the form of playing action video games can reduce or eliminate the gender difference on most spatial tasks
31
On the Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), conducted with fourth- and eighth-grade students around the world showed what differences between males and females?
there were no math differences between boys and girls in 26 countries
32
On the College Board SAT Mathematics test, which is typically taken by 11th- and 12th-graders, what differences between males and females?
males score approximately 20 points higher than females - Among the highest-performing students on the SAT-Math, there are 45% more males
Paradoxically, there is evidence that girls in high school earn higher grades in math classes than boys
33
Which sex displays greater memory ability on a variety of tasks including episodic memory and associative memory?
Women
34
Males engage in more physical and verbal aggression than females, starting as early as...
17 months
at 17 months, for every one girl who is physically aggressive there are five boys who display frequent physical aggression
35
Even before birth and throughout childhood, males are more...
physically active than females - teachers report that boys are more hyperactive than girls
36
Females are more prone to develop which three mental health conditions?
anxiety disorders, depression, and eating disorders
37
males are more likely to display which behaviours and mental health concerns?
antisocial behaviors and drug and alcohol abuse and are more frequently diagnosed with autism
38
if we ordered people based on degree of aggressiveness from most aggressive to the least aggressive person in a group, only __% of the observed differences could be attributed to whether a person is male or female
5%
39
Average gender differences in most abilities and personality traits are typically large or small?
small
40
social-role theory - who and what?
Alice Eagly
gender role stereotypes are created and maintained by differences in the roles that men and women play in society rather than being inherent in males and females
-it is not all “by nature.”
41
according to social-role theory, Individuals even perceive themselves differently depending on which of their roles they are considering: more _______ when thinking of their work role and more __________ when thinking of their family role
agentic
communal
42
Zachary Estes and Sydney Felker
gender norms and stereotypes, even when they are unfounded, affect how we perceive ourselves and other people. As long as people expect females to be less competent in math than males, for example, females may lack confidence in their abilities and perform less competently
research on mental rotation ability: Gender differences on this task were eliminated when males and females had the same confidence levels.
43
the top five occupations held by U.S. women continue to be, in order
teacher, nurse, nursing or home health aide, secretary, and cashier
44
Biosocial Theory - who and what?
Money and Ehrhardt
- theory of gender-role development that focuses on how biological events influence the development of boys and girls and how early biological developments influence how society reacts to children.
45
The biosocial theory predicts that if a biological male were consistently labeled and treated as a girl, he would, by about age 3...
acquire the gender identity of a girl
46
From the 1950s until the early 1990s, different forms of androgen were prescribed to women in the hopes of preventing a miscarriage. What was the result?
depending on the dose and timing of the drug, some female infants ended up with external organs that resembled those of a boy (e.g., a large clitoris that looked like a penis and fused labia that resembled a scrotum), despite their XX genetic endowment and female internal organs - underwent surgery to alter their genitals, and were then raised as girls
(androgenized females)
47
androgenized females
A genetic female who was exposed to male sex hormones during the prenatal period and therefore developed male-like external genitals and some masculine behaviors
48
4 common masculine behaviors of androgenized females
tomboys and preferred boys’ toys and vigorous activities
began dating somewhat later than other girls and felt that marriage should be delayed for career
relatively high proportion (37%) described themselves as homosexual or bisexual
tend to perform better than most other females on tests of spatial ability
49
what may be part of the reason males are more likely than females to commit violent acts?
male exposure to testosterone and other male hormones
50
Men with high testosterone levels tend to have high rates of...
delinquency, drug abuse, abusiveness, and violence
- findings have emerged from correlational studies showing an association between testosterone and aggression; they do not show us the direction of the relationship
-not restricted to the current levels circulating in the body
51
Social Learning Theory
children learn masculine or feminine identities, preferences, and behaviors through two processes:
differential reinforcement
observational learning
52
differential reinforcement
children are rewarded for sex-appropriate behaviors and are punished for behaviors considered more appropriate for members of the other sex
53
observational learning
children adopt the attitudes and behaviors of same-sex models
54
One area where differential treatment seems to continue is...
encouragement of “feminine play” or play with “feminine toys.” Parents are quite comfortable encouraging their girls to play dress-up and play with dolls, but rarely encourage their sons to do so
-boys are encouraged to play with “masculine” toys such as blocks and trucks and, on the flip side, boys are usually not discouraged from running, jumping, and climbing on things
55
who is most likely to reward children’s gender-appropriate behavior and to discourage behavior considered more appropriate for the other sex?
fathers
56
who is most likely unconsciously influenced by implicit stereotypes without directly stating these stereotypes? (e.g., throwing away a brochure for a math camp, assuming a daughter will not be interested in this)
mothers
57
Jacquelynne Eccles and her colleagues conducted several studies to determine why girls tend to shy away from math and science courses and are underrepresented in occupations that involve math and science
- results?
suggest that parental expectations about gender differences in mathematical ability become self-fulfilling prophecies
Parents attribute their sons’ successes in math to ability but credit their daughters’ successes to hard work
Children begin to internalize their parents’ views, so girls come to believe that they are “no good” in math.
58
what contributes in important ways to gender typing?
observational learning
59
at what age do children begin to pay much closer attention to same-sex models than to other-sex models? for example, they will choose toys that members of their own sex prefer even if it means passing up more attractive toys
Around age 6 or 7
60
women who grew up with a brother or sister followed more traditional gender norms which led to lower earnings?
brother
- With a boy and girl in the family, parents often find that it makes sense to assign the feminine-stereotyped chore to their girl and the masculine-stereotyped chore to their boy
61
Among the top 100 films of 2014 how many main characters were male? how many female?
75% of the main characters were male, 13% were comprised of a group with both males and females, and only 12% were females
62
Children who watch a large amount of television are more likely to do what?
choose gender-appropriate toys and to hold stereotyped views of males and females
63
the strongest traditional gender stereotypes are found in tv, movies, books or video games?
video games
- where female characters are portrayed as subordinate and sexually provocative, in contrast to male characters who are portrayed as strong and aggressive
64
the stereotype of the “real gamer” continues to be what?
young male
- Women who play online interactive video games report high levels of harassment and sexist treatment from other players
65
Criticism for social learning theory: 2 items
often portray children as the passive recipients of external influences
does not put enough emphasis on what children contribute to their own gender socialization (boys ask for trucks and their girls want dolls, at least by 18 months of age)
66
Cognitive Theories of gender development
Kohlberg's theory of gender typing
Martin and Halverson’s schematic-processing model
67
Lawrence Kohlberg's cognitive theory of gender typing
two major themes:
-Gender-role development depends on stage-like changes in cognitive development; children must acquire certain understandings about gender before they will be influenced by their social experiences
-Children engage in self-socialization; instead of being the passive targets of social influence, they actively socialize themselves
“I’m a boy, so now I’ll do everything I can to find out how to behave like one.”
68
Kohlberg believed that children are what kind of agents in their gender development?
self-initiated ‘gender detectives’—agents who actively construct the meaning of gender categories, rather than as passive recipients of external gender socialization agents
69
gender constancy
understanding that our genders remain the same throughout our lives and despite superficial changes in appearance
70
three steps that children everywhere progress through as they acquire gender constancy
1. Basic gender identity is established when children can recognize and label themselves as males or females, usually by age 2½
2. preschool-age children acquire gender stability—that is, they come to understand that gender identity is stable over time. They know that boys invariably become men and girls grow up to be women
3. children achieve gender consistency somewhere between age 5 and 7 when they realize that their sex is also stable across situations
71
How does gender stability / gender constancy relate to Piaget's stages?
This is about the time that children enter Piaget’s concrete-operational stage of cognitive development and come to grasp concepts such as conservation of liquids. With this, they also realize that gender is conserved—remains constant—despite changes in appearance.
72
What happens when children acquire gender stability?
often become rather rigid in their gender behaviors:
It is at this point that many girls succumb to “pink frilly dress” or “PFD” syndrome, the strong desire to wear pink frilly dresses and embrace all that is pink
73
Criticism of Kohlberg’s theory (2 items)
children do actively seek same-sex models and learn many gender-role stereotypes and develop clear preferences for same-sex activities and playmates long before they master the concepts of gender stability and gender consistency at age 5-7
transgender children are less likely to believe that gender is stable because for them, their gender assignment at birth does not match their inner sense of gender
74
schematic-processing model - who and what?
Martin and Halverson
First, children acquire a simple in-group–out-group schema that allows them to classify some objects, behaviors, and roles as appropriate for males and others as appropriate for females
Then they seek more elaborate information about the role of their own sex, constructing an own-sex schema
a young girl who knows her basic gender identity might first learn that sewing is for girls and building model airplanes is for boys. Then, because she is a girl and wants to act consistently with her own self-concept, she gathers a great deal of information about sewing to add to her own-sex schema, largely ignoring any information that comes her way about how to build model airplanes
75
gender schemata
Organized sets of beliefs and expectations about males and females that guide information processing.
(schematic-processing model)
76
Once gender schemata are in place, children will do what with new information in memory?
children will distort new information in memory so that it is consistent with their schemata - research gives some insight into why inaccurate gender stereotypes persist. The child who believes that women cannot be doctors may be introduced to a female doctor but may remember meeting a nurse instead and continue to state that women cannot be doctors
77
some androgenized females were labeled as boys at birth and raised as such until their underlying condition was detected - the discovery and correction of this condition (by surgery and relabeling as a girl) caused few adjustment problems if the change took place when?
before 18 months
78
some androgenized females were labeled as boys at birth and raised as such until their underlying condition was detected - after what age was sexual reassignment exceedingly difficult because these genetic females had experienced prolonged masculine gender typing and had already labeled themselves as boys?
After age 3
79
Money and Ehrhardt concluded that there is a critical period between 18 months and 3 years for the establishment of what?
gender identity when the label society attaches to the child is likely to stick
80
who may be especially important in communicating gender messages to infants?
older siblings
81
what research contradicts Money and Ehrhardt's theory that there is a critical period for establishment of gender identity?
a condition called 5α-reductase-2 deficiency or 5-ARD, in which a male fetus is unable to convert testosterone into the form needed for typical masculinization of external genitals - most of these genetic males are born with ambiguous genitals or external genitals that appear feminine and most are raised as girls
-the surge of male hormones produced at puberty, they develop a masculine appearance including a deeper voice and broad shoulders and they experience growth of their penis and scrotum.
At least half of individuals affected with 5-ARD shift from female to male and adopt masculine lifestyles, including the establishment of heterosexual relationships
82
visual tracking of objects by infants: turns out that throughout much of infancy reveals what about boys and girls?
males spend more time looking at a truck whereas females spend more time looking at a doll - suggests a rudimentary recognition of gender-stereotypic information
83
at what age can infants can distinguish between male and female faces?
around 3–4 months
84
babies look longer at a male (or female) face when they hear a male (or female) voice than when they hear a voice that does not match the gender of the face, demonstrating cross-modal association of gender-related information at what age?
By the end of the first year
85
at what age do children begin looking longer at males and females performing such gender-inconsistent activities as a man putting on makeup than those performing activities consistent with gender stereotypes, such as a man mowing the lawn
By 24 months
86
most toddlers seem to have an emerging understanding that they are either like other males or like other females, even if not all of them can verbalize it, by what age?
By 18 months
87
When do girls and boys understand which activities are associated with males and which ones are more typical of females?
Girls as young as 24 months understand
Boys, however, do not show the same understanding until at least 6 months later
88
Almost all children give verbal proof that they have acquired a basic sense of gender identity by age...
2½ to age 3
89
both boys and girls show a preference for gender-stereotyped toys starting at what age?
Starting around their first birthday
90
Sigmund Freud used this as evidence for an oral stage of development
young infants appear to derive pleasure from sucking, mouthing, biting, and other oral activities
91
Infants are sexual beings primarily in the sense that...
their genitals are sensitive and their nervous systems allow sexual responses.
92
Much of the action in gender-role development takes place during which stage of life?
the toddler and preschool years
93
gender typing
The process by which children become aware of their gender and acquire the motives, values, and behaviors considered appropriate for members of their biological sex
94
By age ____, girls show a preference for feminine toys and boys show a preference for masculine toys
5-6
boys seem to hold more gender-stereotypical toy preferences than girls
95
Rigidity about gender stereotypes is especially high during what age group?
the preschool years (around ages 4–7)
but then decreases over the elementary school years
96
What does the amygdala show when children of different ages are viewing same- or opposite-sex faces?
The amygdala of young children (4–7 years) seemed to register differences between viewing same-sex and opposite-sex faces, whereas 10- to 12-year-old children did not show this same reaction
97
“cootie effect”
the dislike that young boys and girls often seem to harbor toward members of the “other” sex
researchers believe that the pattern of findings in the amygdala of young children (4–7 years) reflects this phenomenon
98
Hanns Trautner followed the same group of children from age 5 through 10 to see if children who held rigid beliefs about gender stereotypes at age 5 remained unshakable in these beliefs over the next 5 years
- peak levels of rigidity occurred between ages _______, followed by significant relaxation of beliefs from age _______.
5-7
7-10
99
Reasons for younger child’s rigid gender role beliefs
in the process of acquiring a clear understanding that their biological sex will remain constant - making them intolerant of anyone who violates traditional gender-role
may exaggerate gender roles to cognitively clarify these roles
depends on how essential a behavior is to children’s understanding of gender identity - although the toy kitchen may be associated with the feminine gender role, it is not considered an essential aspect of the feminine gender role
100
What group of children is less rigid about stereotypes
those who have identified as transgender - The siblings of transgender children are also less rigid about stereotypes
101
what differences are there in the gender-typed behaviors of children growing up in different family constellations with lesbian, gay, or heterosexual parents?
there are no differences
in all families, most children are gender conforming
102
children who are nonconforming with gender norms at this early age are more likely to identify as having what when they are adolescents?
having a nonheterosexual sexual orientation
103
gender segregation
The formation of separate boys’ and girls’ peer groups during childhood
104
Children begin to favor same-sex playmates as early as...
30–36 months of age
105
During the elementary school years, boys and girls develop even stronger preferences for what type of peers?
peers of their own sex, separating themselves into boys’ and girls’ peer groups and interacting far more often with their own sex than with the other sex
-occurs in a variety of cultures
106
Carol Martin and her colleagues (2013) found that what is the primary criterion for selecting playmates in elementary school?
gender of potential playmates, and not the activity of the playmates, is the primary criterion for selecting playmates.
107
children who violate gender segregation rules tend to be what?
less well-adjusted and run the risk of being rejected by their peers
108
does the more limited socialization of nonconforming children lead to problem behavior?
no, although earlier research suggested this
109
at what point will a child begin to provide explanations of where babies come from?
between about 2 and 7 years - Piaget’s preoperational stage where they “reason” on the basis of how things look rather than applying any real logic
110
at what age do some children know that sexual intercourse plays a role in the making of babies, but their understanding of just how this works is limited?
By age 6
111
do children from lower socioeconomic status (SES) families seem to have more or less knowledge about sex than those from higher SES families?
less
112
by what age do most children have integrated information about sexual intercourse with information about the biological union of egg and sperm and can provide an accurate description of intercourse and its possible outcomes?
12
113
According to Freudian theory, preschoolers in the phallic stage of psychosexual development are what? was he right or wrong?
actively interested in their genitals and seek bodily pleasure through masturbation
-he was right about this
114
According to Freudian theory, school-age children do what in terms of sexual behaviour? was he right or wrong
enter a latency period during which they repress their sexuality and turn their attention instead to schoolwork and friendships with same-sex peers
-he was wrong about this
115
at what age do at least half of all children engage in sexual play (playing doctor or house) and sexual exploration such as looking at and touching genitals?—their own, a peer’s, or a younger sibling’s
Between ages 2 and 5, interest increases
116
What amount of boys and girls have masturbated by age 13?
about two-thirds of boys and half of girls
117
Gilbert Herdt and Martha McClintock (2000) have gathered evidence that age ___ is an important point in sexual development. Why?
age 10
a time when many boys and girls experience their first sexual attraction (often to a member of the other sex if they later become heterosexual or to a member of their own sex if they later identify as gay or lesbian)
influenced by the maturation of the adrenal glands
118
what challenges the view of Freud that puberty is the critical time in sexual development?
maturation of the adrenal glands (which produce male androgens)
comes well before the maturation of the sex organs during puberty - a time when many boys and girls experience their first sexual attraction (around age 10)
119
By the end of childhood, ___% of females and ___% of males have experienced sexual assault or sexual abuse
27%
5%
120
Girls are most often abused by males, whereas males are abused most often by whom?
almost as often by other males as by females
121
How many children report sexual abuse / assault?
only one out of every four abused children tells someone about the abuse within the first 24 hours and one in four remains silent, never telling anyone
122
long-term effects of child sexual abuse
no single distinctive “syndrome” of psychological problems
may experience any number of problems, including anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, aggression, acting out, withdrawal, and school learning problems
Many of these after-effects boil down to lack of self-worth and difficulty trusting others
20–30% experience each of these problems, and boys seem to experience the same types and degrees of disturbance as girls
123
what brain area was especially impacted by abuse during the preschool period (3–5 years)?
the hippocampus
124
what brain area was most affected by abuse during the pre-pubertal period (9–10 years)?
the corpus callosum
125
what brain area was influenced most by abuse during the adolescent period (14–16 years)?
the frontal cortex, although not as negatively affected as the other two areas of the brain (affected during earlier ages)
126
Two problems seem to be especially linked to being sexually abused:
engaging in sexualized behavior and PTSD (about 1/3 of survivors)
127
changes in brain anatomy resulting from childhood sexual abuse are associated with later mental health conditions such as...
depression, anxiety, and PTSD
128
one-third of sexual abuse offenders are...
juveniles between the ages of 12 and 14 taking advantage of peers or somewhat younger children - Some have a history of bullying and violating other children’s space or rights, but others are motivated by sexual curiosity
129
what is the three-pronged approach to preventing sexual abuse?
working with the survivors, the offenders, and all children on prevention of sexual abuse
decline in reports of childhood abuse from 17% in 1990 to 9% in 2017
130
Are adolescents more or less tolerant/flexible in their thinking about the roles of males and females than elementary children?
adolescents again seem to become highly intolerant of certain role violations and stereotyped in their thinking (much like young children and kindergarteners)
more likely than somewhat younger children to make negative judgments about peers who violate expectations
131
Adolescents, especially females, who do not conform to gender norms are more likely to experience what?
often subjected to relational violence and aggression from their gender-conforming peers
132
gender intensification
A magnification of differences between males and females during adolescence associated with increased pressure to conform to traditional gender roles
133
When gender intensification does occur, it is largely related to what factors?
peer influence and the growing importance of dating - to appeal to the other sex
134
What happens in later adolescence in terms of their thinking about the roles of males and females?
teenagers again become more comfortable with their identities as men and women and more flexible in their thinking
135
what portion of transgender youth report bullying, harassment, and verbal abuse by not only their peers, but in some cases by their own parents?
A majority (two-thirds)
136
five-stage process of adopting a transgender identity articulated by Walter Bockting and Eli Coleman
Pre-coming out - begin to feel confused as they realize they do not fit nicely into the two big gender categories
Coming out - begin to acknowledge to selves and others
Exploration - conduct a great deal of research and give considerable thought to how to best live as transgender
Intimacy - transgender men seem to have an easier time with this stage - is also influenced by one’s sexual orientation - heterosexual have a smoother path than those with a homosexual orientation
Identity integration - a union of one’s public and private selves
137
part of an individual’s larger task of resolving Erikson’s conflict of identity versus role confusion is
becoming aware of one’s sexual orientation—that is, preference for sexual partners of the same or other sex, or both
138
experts now recognizing at least five classifications of sexual identity:
heterosexual, mostly heterosexual, mostly homosexual, homosexual, or bisexual
Some scholars prefer the term nonexclusive sexual attraction rather than bisexual
139
what percentage of the U.S. population self-identifies as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender?
2013 Gallup poll: 3.5%
140
“commitment with passive exploration”
Most adolescents establish a heterosexual sexual orientation without much soul-searching
141
Experimentation with different varieties of sexual activity is fairly common during adolescence, but few adolescents become part of the estimated ____% of adults who establish an enduring homosexual or bisexual sexual orientation
4-5%
142
sexual orientation is _______ across the life span
stable - at least for those individuals who identify themselves as exclusively heterosexual or homosexual
individuals who identify as bisexual, there is less stability over time, with only one in four remaining in this category over time
143
Genetics as an influence on sexual orientation:
identical twins (33%) are more alike in nonheterosexual orientation than fraternal twins (13% same-sex and 8% different sexes) - genetics played a role and was stronger for males than for females
However, in as many as two-thirds of identical twin pairs, one twin is homosexual or bisexual but the other is heterosexual
144
what about the psychoanalytic view that male homosexuality stems from having a domineering mother and a weak father?
we can reject that
-shared environment contributed next to nothing to the concordance of twins’ sexual orientation
145
do hormonal influences during the prenatal period influence sexual orientation?
androgenized females are more likely than other women to adopt a lesbian or bisexual orientation
some evidence that later-born males with older brothers may be more attracted to other males because their mothers produced antimale antibodies that accumulate over the course of each pregnancy with a male
146
sexual beliefs of adolescents changed dramatically during the 20th century, especially during the...
1960s and 1970s
147
what portion of adolescents have come to believe that sex with affection in the context of a committed relationship is acceptable?
approximately three out of four
148
On average, teens wait how long before having sex with a romantic partner?
about 5 months
149
women with higher rates of hookups are more likely to experience what?
depression relative to those having no or little casual sex - men with higher rates of casual sex have some of the lowest levels of depression
150
double standard
The view that sexual behavior appropriate for members of one gender is inappropriate for members of the other.
-may have declined slightly but has certainly not disappeared over the years
151
Rates of sexual activity climbed in the 1960s and continued to climb through the 1980s before leveling off and then declining somewhat from when?
the mid-1990s on
152
Are more or less 15- to 19-year-olds having sex now than from 1988?
declined from 60 to 42% for males and from 51 to 43% for females over the 20-year period from 1988 to 2008
153
by age 18, what percentage of young adults report having had sexual intercourse?
by age 25?
65%
93%
154
Teenage males who identify as gay are more or less likely to be sexually active than teenage females who identify as lesbian?
somewhat less
155
in a 2007 survey only ___% of college students agreed that they had “had sex” when they engaged in oral–genital stimulation
20%
156
there are somewhat higher rates of _____ than intercourse among today’s high school students
oral sex
as many as 40% of college students who label themselves virgins report giving or receiving oral sex, and some of these have had three or more oral sex partners
157
Percentage of teens who start having intercourse at age 17 or younger that report using contraception?
among those teens who start having intercourse at ages 18–19?
82% of males and 77% of females
99% males and 93% females
158
Who is most likely to engage in risky sexual behaviors?
teens and young adults from minority groups, especially males
159
teens are more likely to use condoms if...
they believe their friends are using condoms
160
For black and Hispanic teens, especially those from lower SES backgrounds, the effects of teen pregnancy are...
not as negative. The difference in outcomes relates to how well a teen was doing prior to the pregnancy; those with few options in terms of education and careers have less to risk
161
rates of teenage pregnancy
After increasing for many years, rates of teenage pregnancy have declined considerably over the past generation and most especially over the past 10 years - attribute this decline, in part, to lower levels of sexual activity among Millennials and iGens - also better educational programs about the consequences of unprotected sex, which has led to better contraceptive use
Rates of teen pregnancy for Hispanic teens continue to be double the rates for white teens, likely related to greater cultural acceptance
162
Ages for highest rates of:
Chlamydia
Gonorrhea
Genital herpes
HPV
Syphilis
15- to 19-year-olds, followed by 20- to 24-year-olds
adolescents and young adults
peaking in middle adulthood
early 20s
20-somethings
163
which teens are more likely to delay sexual activity?
teens who feel close to their parents, especially their mothers, and who report having closer parental supervision
Parents who have clear household routines, monitor their teens, and establish strong relationships
particularly when mothers (rather than fathers) have the conversation and point out the negative consequences of having sex at an early age
164
how many women in college report that they have been sexually assaulted?
One in four, or about 26%
165
how many men in college report that they have been sexually assaulted?
about 7%
166
when are college women most likely to experience a sexual assault?
during the first month or two of their first year in college
167
how many women report sexual to school official or to law enforcement?
only 25%
A majority of sexually assaulted women tell a friend, roommate, or family member
Males who are sexually assaulted are much less likely to report
168
Factors contributing to the incidence of sexual assault in college:
Alcohol consumption - binge drinking
A culture of “hooking up”
Fraternity and athletic subcultures
169
How to reduce risk of sexual assaults at colleges:
“bystander intervention” programs
programs that focus on fostering clearer communication about issues of consent
170
gender roles during early adulthood
male and female roles differ little because members of both sexes are often single and in school or working
171
parental imperative
David Gutmann’s hypothesis
The notion that the demands of parenthood cause men and women to adopt distinct roles and psychological traits:
in many cultures, young and middle-aged men must emphasize their “masculine” qualities to feed and protect their families, whereas young and middle-aged women must express their “feminine” qualities to nurture the young and meet the emotional needs of their families
172
on an average day, __% of men engage in some type of housework compared to __% of women
22%
46%
173
what is related to both educational attainment and career status for women?
motherhood
as they neared the age of 30, women seemed to be able to have marriage and a career, or marriage and a baby, but having all three led to some compromises
174
What happens to men and women when their children are grown?
men become less active and more passive - more sensitive and emotionally expressive
women become more active, domineering, and assertive
roles of men and women are fairly similar before marriage, maximally different during the childrearing years, and similar again later
175
psychological androgyny
having both masculine and feminine stereotyped characteristics
-positive androgyny score higher on measures of mental health and well-being than those with negative androgyny
176
Gender differences in interest and activity are small among younger adults but become larger with age, leading to relatively large differences among the oldest adults surveyed: 75- to 85-year-old men were __ times as likely to be sexually active and __ times as likely to express interest in sex as women the same age
2 times
4 times
177
what is an unexpected consequence of longer and healthier life spans and greater recognition and acceptance of middle and older adults’ sexual activity?
the doubling of STIs among those age 45 and older
178
Males are at their peak of sexual responsiveness when?
late teens and early 20s and gradually become less responsive thereafter
179
Females reach their peak of sexual responsiveness when?
later than men do, often not until their mid-30s
180
what effect does menopause have on sexual activity or interest for most women
does not seem to reduce sexual activity or interest
181
why might sexual activity and interest decrease in older adults?
infirmity, diseases and disabilities, as well as the drugs prescribed
Mental health problems
social attitudes
double standard of aging, which regards aging in women more negatively than aging in men
the lack of a partner, or at least of a willing and desirable partner
“use it or lose it” principle
182
In a playroom filled with toys, what will be the youngest child to show a distinct preference for a toy that matches traditional gender expectations?
a girl who is 2 years old
By the age of 24 months, girls understand the segregation between activities that are associated with boys and girls, whereas boys do not demonstrate this understanding until at least six months later.
183
Diane and Lamar are a typical married couple with three children. How are child care and housework duties divided among them?
Diane does twice as much work as Lamar.
184
Aaron has come to the realization that he is transgender. What will be the next stage in his journey?
Learning about the experience
185
what term best reflects the concept of androgyny?
Multidimensional - Androgyny is a balancing of both agentic and communal traits in a person.
186
Akbar's parents are celebrating his birth and are ready to bring him home to his nursery, which is painted blue. How old will Akbar be when he knows that boys are expected to play with trucks but not with dolls?
30 months
187
what high school student attitude about sexual behavior has changed the least since 1950?
Having sex in the first month of dating
188
The rush of hormones that has produced a wispy mustache on Heng's upper lip—combined with exchanging locker room tales with his buddies about which girls are cutest—have led to Heng experiencing gender...
intensification
