Changing Spaces Making places

Question 1

What is the definition of place?

Answer 1

A place is a space that has been given meaning by an individuals lived experience.

Places are multifaceted, shaped by shifting flows and connections, with change over time.

Question 2

What socio-economic characteristics contribute to the identity of a place?

Answer 2

Poverty, education, literacy rates, family size, average income, type of jobs, healthcare, % unemployed

Question 3

What is the definition of space?

Answer 3

Exists between places and does not have the same meaning attached as a place does. It is a location that can be given a latitude and a longitude.

Question 4

What is a place profile?

Answer 4

A description of a place, based on the combination of its characteristics.

Question 5

What political characteristics contribute to the identity of a place?

Answer 5

Political system, effectiveness of local authorities, democracy, monarchy

Parish Council (local)
District Council
County Council (regional)
MP (national)

Question 6

What cultural characteristics contribute to the identity of a place?

Answer 6

Religion, local traditions, cultures, local clubs, societies

Question 7

What demographic characteristics contribute to the identity of a place?

Answer 7

Total population, ethnicities, age structure, gender

Question 8

What physical geographical characteristics contribute to the identity of a place?

Answer 8

Geology, topography, drainage, climate, rivers, coasts, relief, aspect, altitude

Question 9

What aspects of the built environment contribute to the identity of a place?

Answer 9

Age and style of houses, architecture, infrastructure, housing density, housing quality, landmarks and historical buildings

Question 10

Explain 2 ways in which religion influences people’s perception of place (4 marks)

Answer 10

Natural landscape features are sacred to religious people, and many have religious meanings built up over centuries, for example the Uluru for Australian Aborigines.

Places of pilgrimage are also significant for religious groups. Sacred temples and other holy temples such as Mecca are significant to many.

Question 11

How do we understand place?

Answer 11

Location - where a place is, the coordinates

Locale - a place is shaped by people, their cultures and traditions

A sense of place - Personal feelings associated with a place. Developed through lived experience, it reflects emotional and subjective attachment

Lived experience - Actual feelings and personal history of living in a place. The time spent in a place helps develop this

Question 12

How do emotions influence attachments to a place?

Answer 12

1. SOCIAL AND PERSONAL EXPERIENCES: if we have positive experiences in a place we are more likely to attribute a strong emotional attachment to it. We also get strong emotions as part of a group, i.e. the strong emotional attachment sports fans have to their team’s home ground. People often have a similar, deeper attachment to nations. Especially true of people exiled from their homeland, eg. the Kurds.
2. EMOTIONS EFFECT OUR BEHAVIOUR IN A PLACE: eg. Auschwitz - sad, shocked, upset, emotional = quiet, thoughtful. Glastonbury - excited, happy = loud, dancing, carefree

Question 13

What effects how people perceive place?

Answer 13

Gender
Religion
Age
Sexuality
Role

Question 14

How and why do people experience places differently based on their identity - age?

Answer 14

Places change in purpose for people as they move through their life cycle, eg. a park for a 4 y/o is an exciting place to play, for a 16 y/o a place to hang out, and for an 80 y/o a place to walk or take grandchildren.

Perception will also change when people revisit a place with different people.

The place will change over time.

Question 15

How and why do people experience places differently based on their identity - gender?

Answer 15

Places can be described as male or female, a reflection of society’s traditional view on gender roles. For example a football stadium would be perceived as typically male, and a home would be perceived as typically female.

Women tend to feel less safe than men is spaces like dark alleyways, i.e ‘geography of fear’ - places with an unsafe perception are avoided.

Question 16

What is an example of a place where geography of fear is prominent?
- Molestation statistics
- Rape statistics

Answer 16

New Delhi - India –> women try to avoid dangerous areas and going out in the dark.
- Molestation is reported every 2 hours
- Rape is reported every 4 hours.

Question 17

How and why do people experience places differently based on their identity - sexuality?

Answer 17

Some places acquire a meaning because they are places where groups of people with the same orientation gather. Cities such as London, Brighton and Bristol have large concentrations of LGBTQ+ communities in certain areas, providing security. The ‘pink pound’ often brings economic benefits to an area, and can be used as a catalyst for regeneration.

Question 18

How and why do people experience places differently based on their identity - religion?

Answer 18

Some places have religious and spiritual meanings which have been established over centuries. Natural features such as the Urulu play a key role in some religions, and are sacred to Aboriginals.

Religious buildings such as the Great Mosque of Mecca form an essential part of worship and ritual, e.g. churches, synagogues and mosques.

Places of pilgrimage are sacred to many religions, e.g. Mecca.

Question 19

How and why do people experience places differently based on their identity - role?

Answer 19

As peoples’ roles change, places’ meanings change too. eg. for children their school has very different connotations and meanings than for their parents, or for an adult without children

Role also influences perceptions of fear, anxiety and security, e.g. as a parent your perception of potential threats such as traffic may be heightened.

Question 20

How and why do many have a strong emotional attachment to their homeland - case study?

Answer 20

The Kurds

Question 21

Who are the Kurds?

Answer 21

An ethnic group spread across Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey. There are about 28-30 million living in the heartland, making them the largest stateless nation in the world.

Question 22

What four countries does Kurdistan include?

Answer 22

Turkey, Iran, Syria, Iraq

Question 23

Describe the human geography of Kurdistan

Answer 23

High unemployment (14%), low GDP ($4,452), economy largely based on oil industry and agriculture - valuable to Iran, Iraq, Turkey and Syria

Question 24

Give an example of a place of national significance to the Kurds, to which strong meaning is attached?

Answer 24

The Erbil Citadel - a Kurdish settlement built progressively on top of itself - a symbol of national pride as it shows how long they’ve been there. Strong meaning

Question 25

What are the Kurds doing today?

Answer 25

Fighting in the Syria crisis for independence. The Kurds have long wanted their own independent state. The Kurdish Workers’ Party (PKK) is an organisation using armed conflict to bring about a Kurdish nation, but it is regarded as a terrorist organisation by the USA and EU economies.

Question 26

What is globalisation?

Answer 26

Globalisation is the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of the world, economically, socially, politically and culturally.

Question 27

What is time-space compression?

Answer 27

A set of processes leading to a ‘shrinking world’, caused by reductions in relative distance between places eg. travel time

Question 28

What is a global village?

Answer 28

The world has become more interconnected and therefore feels smaller. This is achieved by social media, technology and transport.

Question 29

Disadvantages of time-space compression

Answer 29

Improved communications and internet
- Loss of distinct cultures (cultural globalisation) – Americanisation and McDonaldisation
- Erodes aspects of cultural identity by the spread of predominantly Western culture, e.g. food, fashion etc. around the world
- Less able to access foreign cultures through travel
- High streets becoming increasingly similar – threatens independent businesses, as they are pushed out with gentrification processes
- Increased competition between traders

With gentrification and a loss of cultural identity, you get increasing property prices, which pushes some residents out and makes it difficult to get onto the property ladder

Improved transport
- Migration has become a greater issue (illegal immigration by boats)
- People more likely to travel abroad for holidays, which has placed UK holiday resorts from the post-war years into decline

Question 30

Advantages of time-space compression:

Answer 30

Improved communications and internet
- Has facilitated the growth of tertiary and quaternary industries
- Rapid flow of information across national and international borders
- People can communicate instantly, e.g. international business has increased, or allows communication to be maintained between family and friends

Improved transport
- Ease of low-cost travel and flights makes international travel more accessible to more people
- Ease of containerisation and food transport to ship goods – improved trade between nations
- More people able to migrate
- Increased variety of currency worldwide/ more easily available

Question 31

What is cultural globalisation?

Answer 31

A phenomenon by which the experience of life is influenced by the diffusion of commodities and ideas.

Question 32

Give an example of a country that have benefited from time-space compression?
- Growth rate
- Workforce?
- Industrial parks?

Answer 32

Time-space compression raised living standards in many poor countries such as Vietnam. Rapid growth 8-10% a year. Well educated low cost work force. 30 new industrial parks - 27,000 employed 2004.

Question 33

What are formal representations of a place?

Answer 33

Vast quantities of data are collected and used to create factual information around which we form opinions and meanings about places, eg. geospatial date, or census data - collected every 10 years. Collects range of data eg. gender, qualifications, religion, ethnicity, heath, housing, employment etc. This gives a rational perspective of a place.

Formal representation is limited in its ability to indicate the lived experience of a placeWhat are informal representations of a place?

Question 34

What are informal representations of a place?

Answer 34

Includes a diversity of media, such as TV, films, music, art, photography, literature and blogs, which play a major role in representing places and giving them geographical context through sights and sounds.

Advertising can also highly influence how we view a place.

Trip advisor is a modern-day form of informal representation that is highly influential - if people see a bad review, they are less likely to visit the place and more likely to have a negative perception of it.

Question 35

What are rural areas?

Answer 35

Closely knit communities, sparsely populated, little diversity. In UK, rural areas have populations of less than 10,000 people

Question 36

What is rural-urban migration?

Answer 36

Moving from rural to urban areas

Question 37

What is counter-urbanisation?

Answer 37

Movement of people and businesses from towns and cities to rural areas

Question 38

What is suburbanisation?

Answer 38

The movement of people from inner city areas to the suburbs of towns and cities, leading to the growth of suburbs and the extension of the urban areas

Question 39

What is intra-urban migration?

Answer 39

Population movements within urban areas, eg. as families develop, housing needs change

Question 40

What is re-urbanisation (gentrification)?

Answer 40

The movement of people and businesses back to the CBD and inner-city due to redevelopment and regeneration

Question 41

What does this tell us about the relationship between rural and urban areas?

Answer 41

Rural-urban continuum - fluid and constantly changing. Becomes increasingly hard to distinguish between them

Question 42

What is social inequality?

Answer 42

Differences in quality of life and standard of living due to the unequal distribution of a range of social factors, such as income, education and health across a population

Question 43

What is the difference between poverty and deprivation

Answer 43

Poverty is defined in terms of money. Often use the poverty line and if people live below this they are in ‘poverty’
Deprivation is having insufficient resources to be able to afford the basic necessities for living e.g Food.

Question 44

What is standard of living?

Answer 44

The ability to access services and goods eg. basics such as food, water, clothes, housing and personal mobility.

Question 45

What is quality of life?

Answer 45

The extent to which peoples’ needs and desires (social, psychological and physical) are met.

Question 46

What is an example of a place with high standards of living but low qualities of life?

Answer 46

Women in Saudi Arabia - very wealthy but low quality of life as can’t express themselves

Question 47

What are social indicators for measuring SOL and QOL?

Answer 47

Incidence of crime, fear of crime, % on free school meals, standard and access to healthcare, standard of education, % on state benefits

Question 48

xWhat are physical indicators for measuring SOL and QOL?

Answer 48

xQuality of housing, level of air pollution, noise pollution, incidence of litter, graffiti, vandalism

Question 49

What are economic indicators for measuring SOL and QOL?

Answer 49

Access to leisure services, open spaces etc, access to employment, level of income

Question 50

What are political indicators for measuring SOL and QOL?

Answer 50

Opportunities to participate in community life and influence decisions eg. % voting in elections

Question 51

‘Higher incomes may lead to a higher standard of living but not always a higher quality of life’. Explain

Answer 51

Higher incomes may allow you to have greater choice of housing, education and diet, and thus a better standard of living, but it may sacrifice quality of life. In some places, getting a higher income requires migration for jobs - remittances provide family with higher standard of living but they will miss the member who has migrated and therefore have a lower quality of life also. There will also likely be longer working hours, or a longer commute etc

Question 52

What is deprivation?

Answer 52

When a person’s well-being falls below a generally regarded minimum.

Question 53

How do the UK government measure social equality and deprivation?

Answer 53

The index of multiple deprivation - uses data derived from census data. Uses 7 indicators to give an overall measure:

Income - measures how close someone is to absolute poverty ($1.25/day). Below this level, a person cannot afford the essentials. Relative poverty relates the level of poverty to the distribution of income across the UK (about 60% of the median household income) - 13 million fall below this currently

Housing - social inequality is evident in the type and quality of housing that people occupy. Housing tenure is also an important indicator – people with lower incomes tend to rent, or cluster in HMOs

Crime - increased crime rates in areas of deprivation

Education - contrasts in literacy levels give an indication of inequality in education

Health care - access is associated with inequalities, e.g. access to clean water, medical care, sanitation, diet, housing and air quality. There is a strong association between poverty and ill-health. The number of doctors per 1000 is often used to describe health inequality.

Employment - Those who had lower levels of education due to their low income have a reduced skillset, and are unable to reach higher paid jobs. In LEDCs, many work in the informal sector. Generally, rural area have lower incomes than urban areas.

Living environment

Question 54

What is HDI?

Answer 54

Human development index
- income in the form of PPP
- Life expectancy at birth
- Education (no. years spent in school)

Composite indicator used to compare levels of development between countries. Ranges from 1 (most developed) to 0 (least developed)

Question 55

What is absolute poverty?

Answer 55

The severe deprivation of basic needs eg. food, safe drinking water, sanitation, health, shelter, education, and information. Occurs if someone is living on less that $1.25 per day

Question 56

What is the international poverty line?

Answer 56

Living on less than $1.90 per day. Extreme poverty is less than $1 per day. In 2013, 10.7% of the world’s population lived in poverty.

Question 57

What is the GINI Coefficient?

Answer 57

Measures income inequality within a country. Values between 0 (where everyone earns the same) and 1 (where one person earns all the money in a country)

Question 58

How and why do spatial patterns of social inequalities vary?

Answer 58

The interaction of several factors leads to spatial patterns of inequality:

Wealth - The ability to purchase goods and services is fundamental to social well-being. Low incomes are linked to ill-health, low literacy rates, and poor access to services due to a lack of disposable income – quality of life is reduced in low income areas

Housing - Quality of accommodation influences inequalities. The smaller the income, the less choice on housing a person has. Poor quality housing is linked to ill-health. In LEDCs, urbanisation often forced people to live in slums. Homelessness is also a growing population. Those with low or irregular incomes find they are unable to afford rising house prices.

Health - Link between ill-health and deprivation, as poor quality housing, poor quality diet and unhealthy lifestyles leading to poor health. They lack an ability to improve their diet or lifestyle, as healthier options are often too expensive. Medical distribution is also uneven, with very few opportunities to access a GP in a rural area.

Education - Accessing even basic education is an issue for many, especially for those in rural areas of an LEDC. This then reduces their employment opportunities, and their ability to access a higher income.

Access to services - Includes access to doctors per thousand people, and access to education. Often inequalities within countries, between the periphery and the core. There is often a clear rural-urban divide in access to services, eg. access to the internet and the means of owning the equipment to be online

Question 59

What is studentification

Answer 59

Social and environmental changes caused by large numbers of students living in a particular area of a town or city.
Family residences into HMOs
The population of Birmingham has shifted to become more youthful due to the large student population - 5 unis

Question 60

What is filtering

Answer 60

Process by which housing passes down from higher to lower income occupants. People who become wealthier ‘upgrade’ and move out leaving the property available for lower-income people to move in.

Question 61

What is Gentrification

Answer 61

Filtering in reverse - neighbourhoods are improved and upgraded by a wealthier influx of people. Lower income people are forced out.

Question 62

What is global shift?

Answer 62

Refers to the relocation of manufacturing production on a global scale. Began taking place in the 80s, when the new international division of labour (NIDL) gathered pace in moving factories to LIDCs rather than West Europe and North America. These changes are able to occur due to containerisation and bulk handling, keeping costs down – FISHER CLARKE MODEL

Question 63

What happened as a result of economic restructuring in ACs?

Answer 63

As global shift began in the 80s, TNCs began to relocate overseas in NICs, due to the comparitive advantage of cheap labour. Meant there were fewer jobs in ACs in primary and secondary industries, as factories had relocated, leading to large scale unemployment (e.g. in Birmingham – negative multiplier effect) Led to economic restructuring and a shift towards the tertiary sector

Question 63

What is comparative advantage?

Answer 63

The principle that countries or regions benefit from specialising in an economic activity in which they are relatively more efficient or skilled

Question 64

What is deindustrialisation?

Answer 64

The absolute or relative decline in the importance of manufacturing in the economy of a country or region

Question 65

What are the social impacts of deindustrialisation?

Answer 65

Unemployment, outmigration of skilled people, population declines, lower incomes, increased crime, ill health

Question 66

What are the environmental impacts of deindustrialisation?

Answer 66

Abandoned and derelict buildings attract crime (drosscapes), polluted land and waterways, increased vandalism and fly tipping, schools and shops close.

Question 67

Economic impacts of deindustrialisation

Answer 67

Industrial decline, businesses reduce workforce, shops and services get less investment, less skilled workforce as those who are skilled move out, less FDI in the area

Question 68

Positive change of economic shift in AC’s - how structural economic change impacts patterns of social inequality

Answer 68

• Cheaper imports = keep down cost of living
• Deindustrialisation = improved environmental quality
• Countries can specialise in high tech industries where they have a comparative advantage of knowledge and innovation (therefore attracting FDI)

Question 69

Negative impacts of economic shift on AC’s - how structural economic change impacts patterns of social inequality

Answer 69

• Outsourcing = job losses, often of unskilled factor workers - this has a negative multiplier effect on the area, as people have less money to spend on local services, so they are forced to close, less money is paid to local councils, so there is reduced spending on education and services, etc.
• Inequalities increase between skilled and unskilled workers
• Job losses are concentrated in certain areas and industries = structural unemployment.

Question 70

Positive impacts of economic shift in LIDC’s and EDC’s - how structural economic change impacts patterns of social inequality

Answer 70

• Growth in exports from manufacturing - increases income and economic growth in the country.
• Employment growth in labour intensive manufacturing spreads wealth and starts to address global inequality.
• Can lead to exposure of new tech, and the improvement of skills

Question 71

Negative impacts of economic shift on LIDC’s - how structural economic change impacts patterns of social inequality

Answer 71

• TNC’s can often be exploitative in manufacturing sector e.g. sweat shops
• Environmental damage
• Increased rural to urban migration = densely populated urban centres
• Destabilisation of domestic food supplies due to loss of primary industry.
• Loss of culture in an area

Question 72

What was done to try and combat these issues in the 1970s and 80s?

Answer 72

1. Investment by TNCs in the EU and foreign investors: Significant investment. Training and employment grew - a positive multiplier effect created. Didn’t fully replace prevalence of former industry, but had positive impacts.
2. Globalisation: Led to significant international opportunities. Firms specialise in areas they are advanced in - in manufacturing, this has often meant specialist high-tech industries, aerospace, pharmaceuticals and biotechnology, creating jobs., e.g. Bangalore in south central India, that has become a centre for aerospace engineering and IT development

Question 73

Positive impacts of gentrification

Answer 73

• Increase in wealthier individuals = more investment
• Housing is refurbished
• Decrease in crime
• Boost to local economy
• More tax revenue
• Renovation

Question 74

Negative impacts of gentrification

Answer 74

• Communities forced out
• Divides within community
• Loss of social diversity
• Some old buildings demolished
• Resentment within communities due to new arrivals.

Question 75

How do booms and recessions impact people and places?

Answer 75

Recessions occur when technology is no longer new. Reduced economic activity is evident from falls in macro-economic indicators, such as GDP, households income.

Bankruptcies and unemployment rise.

As disposable income falls, households reduce their discretionary spending (e.g. they keep technology for longer)

During a boom, technological innovation is not evenly distributed. It is the core regions that benefit from economic growth, where the multiplier effect is strong. The greater economic opportunities available in the core regions help to explain the higher standards of living found there.

Question 76

Kondratiev Waves

Answer 76

Kondratiev waves are cycles of economic growth and decline, each about 50 years long.

Kondratiev waves are linked with technological innovation, with each wave being associated with new industries that provide the basis for economic growth.

Question 77

Waves of innovation

Answer 77

Similar to the Kondratiev graph, in that each wave is fuelled by a different technological innovation, however the height increases each time as income does.

Question 78

Example of an area that has benefited from globalisation - Silicon Valley, California

Answer 78

• An industrial area around the southern shores of San Francisco Bay in California
• The heart of the region is Stanford University
• High concentration of technology companies developed from the mid-20th century
• Known to be a centre of innovation, e.g. this is where Microsoft started in the mid 1970s
• Close to the major urban centre of San Francisco, which provides a good standard of living for people generating a high income

Question 79

Suggest why some people have benefitted more than others form globalisation using an example.

Silicon Valley, California

Answer 79

Who benefits?
- High standards of living, being so close to San Francisco
- Desirable place to live - centred on Santa Clara Valley
- Benefits to the graduates of Stanford University, who act as a regular supply of skills to the research businesses - high standard of education, and plenty of employment opportunities post-uni
- High availability of venture capital for new startups. Nearly half of all the venture capital in the USA is spent in Silicon Valley and it has the most millionaires/billionaires in relation to the population of the region – good opportunities for people who live and work there
- Agglomeration of law firms to ensure ideas are patented – offers further employment opportunities to graduates

Who doesn’t benefit?
- Migrants that have been drawn in due to the employment opportunities are disadvantaged - may have a poor quality of life as they have to work away from home
- Most production line workers are paid minimum wage, and have a high exposure to toxic chemicals

Question 80

Methods used by the Gov at a national level to tackle social and economic inequalities (how do they play a part in reducing or exacerbating social inequality)

Answer 80

Taxation
- Income tax redistributes wealth to reduce social inequality – progressive system where people with higher incomes pay a larger proportion of their incomes in tax. Essential items, e.g. food, may be exempt from tax to benefit poorer groups who spend a larger proportion of their income on tax

Subsidies - e.g. Free school meals, clothing allowances, help with university fees, or pensioners get subsidies for fuel and transport. Low wage earners, unemployed workers and those with a long-term disability are entitles to benefits

Planning - give priority to regenerating housing and services in poorer areas. Planning is often organised geographically and is targeted at the most deprived areas, which vary in scale from neighbourhoods to entire regions

Law - outlaws discrimination on racial, ethnic, gender and age criteria, and aims to give equal opportunities to all. The poorest groups of workers are protected by minimum wage legislation

Education - Governments provide funding for training and upgrading skills in order to raise skill levels and qualifications, improve employment prospects, and boost economic growth. There are also education programmes designed to improve personal health, (e.g. diet, obesity, smoking).

Rural services - concentrated in large villages and small towns to act as a hub for people in surrounding smaller settlements.

Question 81

What is a player?

Answer 81

An individual or organisation with an interest or influence in decisions, actions or operations (sometimes referred to as a stakeholder)

Question 82

Public players - government (how do they play a part in reducing or exacerbating social inequality)

Answer 82

International scale
- The EU (transnational government) – gives financial support promote economic development and social inclusion, using structural funds (aim to promote development and the structural adjustment of a region that has fallen behind other parts of the EU), e.g. European Social Fund - invests 10 billion Euros a year, aimed at improving job prospects

National scale
- Responsible for strategic planning (see 2 above) such as education and training, major transport links and environmental damage
- Tourist boards
- Ambassadors overseas

Local scale
- Carries out planning and implementation at a local scale
- Planning departments
- County and district councils are responsible for services such as education, social services, libraries, main roads, public transport, emergency services, waste disposal, council housing, building control etc

Question 83

Private players (the role of players in driving structural economic change)

Answer 83

TNCs
- All national and local governments are keen to secure FDI from TNCs, because of the employment as associated positive multiplier effect that this will offer – workers gain disposable income, more money spent on services, development of the local area, becomes more attractive to investors etc
- Successive UK governments have pursued policies intended to attracted TNCs to areas suffering from deindustrialisation, e.g. Hitachi Rail Europe at Newton Aycliffe

Non-government organisations
- Tend to have a particular focus
- Can be small and local, or on a much larger scale
- E.g. The National Trust - over a million members interested in the conservation of historic buildings and landscape

Question 84

Give an example of FDI

Answer 84

Hitachi Rail - Manufacturing plant in Newton Aycliff .
- Opened in September 2015
- £85 million flow of FDI from Japan into the UK
- FDI has been accompanied by many part manufacturers
- British government awarded a contract worth £5.7 billion -
- Japan exempt from import tariffs on cars exported to mainland Europe
- 700 employed and 6000 jobs in the factory’s supply chain

Question 85

What is rebranding?

Answer 85

Developments aimed at changing negative perceptions of a place, making it more attractive to both visitors and investors.

Involves both reimaging and regeneration (the 2 often act as a catalyst for each other)

Question 86

What is regeneration?

Answer 86

The investment of capital and ideas into an area to revitalise and renew its socio-economic and environmental status.

Large scale and a long term process

Question 87

What is reimaging?

Answer 87

Positively changes the standing and reputation of a place through specific improvements, usually involving cultural, artistic or sporting elements.

Question 88

The role of governments in the placemaking process

Answer 88

TNCs and FDI

• With the growth of TNCs, governments are keen to encourage inward investment by TNCs
• TNCs can be described as placeless, as they have considerable choice of location (their operations are widely distributed across several countries)
• Most FDI flows of capital are from TNCs headquartered in ACs, e.g. Barclays, Sony and Nestle. Over 60% of their investments are in other ACs
• By securing FDI from TNCs, governments aim to raise the economic status of an area - employment opportunities are improved, and the general perception of the place raises as there is greater inward investment, e.g. Hitachi Rail, Newton Aycliffe

Question 89

Who influences the placemaking process?

Answer 89

The government and other organisations - TNCs and the attraction of FDI

Planners and architects

Local communities - community organisations/residents associations usually concern themselves with housing, community and environmental matters

Digital placemaking - social media becoming more integrated in the lives of more people, used to encourage participation and collaboration

Question 90

Hitachi Rail, Newton Aycliffe

Answer 90

• Opened in September 2015
• This plant represents an £85 million flow of FDI from Japan into the UK
• This FDI has been accompanied by many parts manufacturers, which have been relocated from Japan to the UK
• This helps to reverse places undergoing economic structural change, and high levels of unemployment in declining traditional industries
• The British government awarded a contract worth £5.7 billion to Hitachi to design inter-city trains - attracted them to the area
• 700 employed

Question 91

How do planners and architects make places?
Iconic buildings
Poor architecture

Answer 91

Architecture can reflect the history and culture of a place and influence how people live. It is therefore significant in placemaking.

Iconic buildings (flagship developments) will be valued and cared for, e.g. the Shard

Poor architecture can lead to vandalism, crime, poor physical and mental health, and a lack of community. In the immediate post-war period, a lack of housing led local authorities to develop cheap housing, especially in inner city areas. These structures created places that had a negative perception, e.g. Hulme, Manchester:
- In the 1960s, the slums of Hulme were replaced by brutalist modern architecture
- Construction was fast and of low cost, but the government did attempt to create jobs in the construction industry by subsidising this build
- High rise modular living with deck-access flats
- The cold and damp flats attracted vermin
- Crime and drug abuse increased in the area
- No sense of community

Question 92

How do planners and architects make places?
24 hour cities

Answer 92

Architects and planners in larger urban areas are looking to the concept of developing 24 hour cities, in which the city loses its unsafe perception at night. E.g. London:
- Night bus routes doubled between 1999 and 2013
- In September 2015, 5 underground lines started operating 24 hours during weekends
- Increasingly gyms and hairdressers remain open throughout the night
- 250 licensed premises open after midnight – much of this change is driven by these
- Larger supermarkets remain open 24 hours for deliveries

The growth of international tourism contributes into more places becoming 24 hour cities, e.g. New York, Berlin, Madrid, Paris, New Orleans. It is also driven by an increasing number of people working night shifts.

Question 93

What does rebranding need to consider? Boscombe

Answer 93

Brand artefact - the physical environment - the seafront and the pier area has been improved - they made use of the good things that were already there to improve the area - was integral to development

Brand essence - people’s lived experience - seaside resort, so it has that history of brits using it as a holiday destination - some level of conflict between people that use it for day visits and residents - as you move into Boscombe, there are pockets of deprivation, which really alters the essence

Brandscape - comparison with competitor cities - how does Boscombe fit in with surrounding settlements

Question 94

Methods of rebranding
Boscombe

Answer 94

Market-led - private investors looking to maximise profit. Home-owners investing in their properties may lead to gentrification.
- Bournemouth council bought the car and developed the Honeycomb apartments - they were private investors looking to maximise profit
- This provided money for the development of Boscombe village spa as it was previously known, and triggered gentrification near to the seafront, around Sea Road, Boscombe Spa Road etc
- The centre of Boscombe has remained deprived
- The Urban Reef was market-led, private investors, manager Mark Cribb - an example of a business that has been set up along the beach, attracting more visitors, maximising profits

Flagship development - large scale, one-off property projects with distinctive architecture. They act as a catalyst for further investment and regeneration
- Boscombe attempted this with the artificial reef, but it failed

Top-down - large organisations impose change in areas requiring regeneration,
- The strategy that is now in place in Boscombe is top down
- Money is coming straight from central government, and is being given to Bournemouth council for redevelopment
- Boscombe regeneration partnership is top down, as the council have been actively involved in getting funding for it

Events or themes - Major festivals e.g. Reading or Notting hill carnival, serves as a catalyst for cultural development and the transformation of the city

Legacy - follows international sporting events which bring investment and regeneration to a place, e.g. London 2012 olympics – Queen Elizabeth Park

Question 95

What elements are involved in the rebranding process?

Answer 95

Retail - with the growth of the importance of consumer spending and increased emphasis on the ‘shopping experience’, rebranding can be aided by retail developments - the retail situation in Boscombe is limited however, as the high street is deprived, shops are dated, e.g. the Royal Arcade shopping centre, which was built in 1975 and remains hugely dated from the period of Boscombe being a seaside resort - little to attract people to the centre

Sport - beach volleyball for Boscombe - UK finals often held in Boscombe due to sandy beaches - brings in flows of money - tried to become a surfing destination, but the reef failed

Food - some places have developed a reputation of high-quality food to help their rebranding - the harvester and the urban reef for Boscombe - attempts to bring people onto the seafront and provide tourist amenities

Leisure and entertainment - coastal activity park and activities on the pier, beach huts etc

Cultural - O2 academy - a live entertainment value which attracts visitors, a Grade II listed music venue and clubbing institution with significant musical heritage

Art - through art galleries and events - also O2 academy

Question 96

Boscombe: Before rebranding

Answer 96

• Success can be assessed by comparing the location before and after rebranding, to see if aims have been met
• The aim for Boscombe seafront was to change its identity as a neglected, unsafe location with a high level of crime
• Boscombe has been in a spiral of decline since the 1960s
• Visitor numbers were low
• Buildings were neglected
• The pier was unsafe and closed to the public
• The area was experiencing high levels of unemployment, with an increasing transient population
• Increase in HMOs
• Increase in crime rates and antisocial behaviour
• In 2002, the average life expectancy in Boscombe was 68.5 years compared to the national average of 77.2 years

Question 97

Flagship development in Boscombe: its failure as a single strategy - Boscombe village spa

Answer 97

When looking at the artificial surf reef as a single strategy, it was a failure - did not achieve what was intended

• Cost £3 million to build
• Failed to create waves suitable for surfing
  Was opened in November 2009, and by the following May, the Uni of Plymouth concluded it wasn’t working as expected
• However advertising and national media coverage ensured that Boscombe was known to many as having a new surfing reef, despite its relative lack of efficiency, which improved Boscombe’s image as a place for leisure
• But overall, it was seen by many as a waste of money - to find some level of success, this needs to be looked at alongside other strategies

Question 98

Market-led in Boscombe: Boscombe village spa

Answer 98

• £11.3million project that began in October 2006
• Mostly self-funded through the sale of the Honeycomb Chine car park on the seafront to Barratts, the property developer, which earned the council £9.35 million
• This allowed the construction of 170 sea-facing apartments
• Funded the whole rebranding project
• Refurb of the pier which cost £2.8 million - clearly worked, as it won pier of the year 2010
• Creation of the Boscombe Chine Gardens - was successful in reducing crime and prostitution in this area, making it more accessible to residents-Dorset Police reported a decrease of 40% in antisocial behaviour
• Bournemouth Borough Council have reported a 32% increase in visitor numbers
• Triggered gentrification near to the seafront, around Sea Road, Boscombe Spa Road etc
• The Urban Reef was market-led, private investors, manager Mark Cribb - an example of a business that has been set up along the beach, attracting more visitors, maximising profits

Question 99

Top-down in Boscombe: why Boscombe Regeneration Partnership and the Town Fund were also needed for some level of success

Answer 99

• Regeneration Partnership: Has so far had biggest impact on housing
• 8 new 3-bedroom Council homes provided to try and reduce HMOs called Gladstone Mews
• Operation Galaxy set up to raise housing standards, improve fire safety and improve crime and anti-social behaviour - better enforcing of accommodation standards

However more strategies were needed - money coming straight down from central government via the Town Fund - top-down

• Town fund: funding scheme launched by the government to improve economies - announced on 3rd March
• Bournemouth council received £21.7 million, which they are using towards Boscombe
• Working in partnership with the Boscombe Regeneration Partnership - again a combination of strategies
• The rebranding hasn’t been as successful as they wanted it to be in terms of it catalysing regeneration in Boscombe - multiple strategies needed to create success

Question 100

Success of rebranding in Boscombe

Answer 100

`This success has been the result of a combination of rebranding categories. Sport with the artificial reef, creating a cafe bar culture along the seafront, innovative architecture with the attempt at the reef.

Urban areas in the UK like Boscombe experience a variety of different rebranding strategies to attract inward investment and external funding - this is what ultimately makes it successful, when there is inward investment, therefore showing how important a collection of rebranding strategies is to ensure success.

Did to some extent stimulate the local economy.

However, it created inequality, as rebranding was focused on the seafront - the town centre has been left behind, suggesting it wasn’t completely successful.

Question 101

How can the success of rebranding be assessed?

Answer 101

• Demographic change
• Crime statistics - should be reduced
• Changing perceptions - residents/ visitors - measured through questionnaires
• Change in catchment areas, e.g. an extension of the sphere of influence for retailing, leisure, employment
• Retail change - number and type of shops - more chain stores would show development
• Changes in occupation type in residences - less HMOs, more permanent homeowners
• Map evidence, before and after
• Photographs, before and after
• Changes in design of buildings and public spaces`