changing family patterns Flashcards
divorce, marriage, cohabitation, single-sex relationships, singlehood, childbearing, lone parenthood, reconstituted families, ethnicity and family patterns, the modern family and postmodern family today
1
Q
what do social trends indicate?
A
more variety of families and households
2
Q
what are the 2 biggest increases in household types?
A
single-person households and lone-parent family households
3
Q
what are the vast majority of lone-parent househoulds?
A
matrifocal
4
Q
what does matrifocal mean?
A
families where women are the head
5
Q
how much have single-person households increased by?
A
500,000 from 2003 to 2013
6
Q
why is there an increase in single-person households?
A
the increasing number of divorce rates and a rise in people over 65 living alone
7
Q
what is the fastest growing household type?
A
multi-family households
8
Q
how much have multi-family households increased by?
A
56% between 2004 and 2014 to 313,000
9
Q
what is the rise of multi-family households linked to?
A
the growing number of beanpole families
10
Q
what is a beanpole family?
A
when grandparents live with their grown-up children and their grandchildren
11
Q
COHABITATION
A
12
Q
what is cohabitation?
A
an unmarried couple living together
13
Q
what is happening to the number of couples cohabiting?
A
it is increasing
14
Q
how many cohabiting couples are there in Britain?
A
2.9 million
15
Q
3 reasons why people cohabit
A
- cohabitation is part of the process of getting married
- it is an alternative to marriage
- people enjoy the absence of legal ties
16
Q
3 reasons why people cohabit
A
- changing attitudes
- effective contraception
- changes in divorce
17
Q
why does changing attitudes lead to more cohabitation?
A
cohabitation is no longer seen as ‘living in sin’
18
Q
why does effective contraception lead to more cohabitation?
A
as available contraception was made readily avaliable in 1967 to unmarried women it made it possible for couples to cohabit without fear of pregnancy
19
Q
why does changes in divorce lead to more cohabitation?
A
the rise in divorce rate means divorce has less power and people may see cohabitation as an attractive alternative to marriage
20
Q
what do new right theorists claim the rise in cohabitation is responsible for?
A
the decline in marriage rates and the traditional nuclear family
21
Q
why do new right theorists think the rise in cohabitation is problematic?
A
because they claim cohabitation is less stable than marriage
22
Q
what does Morgan say about cohabitation?
A
cohabiting couples are less happy and less fulfilled than married couples, more likely to be abusive, unfaithful, stressed and depressed
23
Q
DIVORCE
A
24
Q
what is divorce?
A
the legal termination of marriage
25
what is separation?
a married couple who end their relationship and live in separate residents but remain legally married
26
what is an empty-shell marriage?
the couple share the same residence, remain legally married, but their marriage exists in name only
27
what is the divorce rate?
the number of divorces per thousand people in a given year
28
what happened to marriage rates in 1930-2010?
they decreased
29
what happened to divorce rates in 1930-2010?
they increased
30
when was there a peak in the number of marriages?
1942
31
how many marriages were there in 2010?
3,400
32
when was there a peak in the number of divorces?
1993
33
what was the divorce rate in 1993?
165,000
34
what has happened to the number of divorce rates in recent years?
they have decreased
35
why have the divorce rates decreased in recent years?
less marriages = less divorces
36
what % of marriages end in divorce?
40%
37
4 types of couples who's marriage is more likely to end in divorce?
1. who marry young
2. who have a child before they marry
3. who cohabit before marriage
4. where one or both partners have been married before
38
5 reasons for the rise in divorce rate
1. changes in the law
2. declining stigma and changing attitudes
3. secularisation
4. rising expectations of marriage
5. changes in the position of women
39
how have changes in the law led to an increase in divorce?
before 1857, divorce was virtually non-existent and only available through an act of parliament
40
2 changes in the law that have led to a rise in the divorce rate
1. divorce reform act 1969
2. divorce dissolution and separation act 2020
41
what is the divorce reform act 1969?
defined the grounds of divorce as the 'irretrievable breakdown' of marriage which means guilt no longer had to be proven
42
what did the divorce dissolution and separation act 2020 do?
reform the divorce process to remove the concept of fault
43
how has deciling stigma and changing attitudes lead to a rise in the divorce rate?
couples were less likely to stay together in order to keep up appearances and avoid the stigma and shame attached to divorce
44
what has the rising divorce rate led to?
the normalisation of divorce
45
what does the normalisation of divorce lead to according to Crockett and Tripp (1994)?
makes divorce more acceptable as a means of dealing with a failed marriage
46
how has secularisation led to a rise in the divorce rate?
religion's traditional view of divorce carries less weight so people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings
47
how has rising expectations of marriage led to a rise in the divorce rate?
people are expect more from marriage so are less likely to put up with an unhappy marriage and end it with divorce
48
what kind of love has Giddens (1992) seen a trend towards?
confluent love
49
what is confluent love?
focuses on intimacy, closeness and emotion
50
why do relationships based on confluent love last longer?
as partners find satisfaction and fulfilment
51
why has changes in the position of women led to a rise in divorce rate?
women are more likely to be able to support themselves in the event o divorce as more are in paid work
52
why do feminists see marriage as patriarchal?
men benefit from their wives 'triple shift' of paid work, domestic work and emotion work
53
what do the new right think of the high divorce rate?
it is undesirable
54
why do the new right think the high divorce rate is undesirable?
it undermines marriage and the traditional nuclear family which are vital for social stability
55
what do the new right think a high divorce rate leads to?
a growing underclass of welfare-dependent female lone parents who are a burden on the state which leaves boys without the adult male role model they need
56
what do feminists think about the high divorce rate?
it is desirable
57
why do feminists think the high divorce rate is desirable?
because it shows women are breaking free from the oppression of the nuclear family and patriarchal oppression
58
what do postmodernists say the high divorce rate shows?
individuals now have the freedom to choose to end a relationship when it no longer meets their needs
59
what do functionalists think about the high divorce rate?
it isn't a threat to marriage as a social institution
60
what do functionalists say the high divorce rate is a result of?
people's higher expectations of marriage (Fletcher)
61
what do functionalists say the high rate of re-marriage shows?
people's continuing commitment to the idea of marriage
62
what do interactionists say we should aim to understand about the high divorce rate?
what divorce means to the individual. Morgan (1996) says we can't generalise about the meaning of divorce as every individuals interpretation is different
63
what does the personal life perspective say the high divorce rate can cause?
problems such as financial difficulties especially for women
64
what does Carol Smart (2011) (personal life) argue about the high divorce rate?
divorce has become normalised and family life can adapt to it without disintegrating
65
PARTNERSHIPS AND MARRIAGE
66
what is marriage?
the formal, legal union pof 2 people
67
what is first marriage?
a marriage in which neither partner has been married before
68
what is remarriage?
a marriage in which one or both partners have been married before
69
what are the 4 key trends in marriage that sociologists are interested in?
1. fewer people are marrying in the UK
2. remarriages have increased
3. people are marrying later
4. couples are less likely to get married in a church
70
4 reasons why people are choosing to marry in recent years
1. changing attitudes to marriage
2. declining stigma attached to alternatives to marriage
3. changes in women's position
4. fear of divorce
71
why has changing attitudes to marriage led to a decrease in marriage?
there is more diversity and the quality of the relationship is seen as more important than its legal status
72
why has declining stigma attached to alternatives to marriage led to a decrease in marriage?
traditional attitudes towards marriage and cohabitation hold less influence over relationships
73
why has changes in women's position led to a decrease in marriage?
women are more independent and go to work and there are many alternatives to marriage for women
74
why has fear of divorce led to a decrease in marriage?
a high divorce rate has put people off getting married for fear it could happen to them
75
in 2012, what fraction of marriages were remarriages?
one third
76
3 reasons why there has been an increase in remarriages
1. more divorces
2. rising expectations of marriage
3. increase in the number of divorce rates
77
what is the average age of first marriage in 2012 for men and women?
32 for men and 30 for women
78
2 reasons why people are getting married at a higher age than in the past
1. more people are going through full-time education and prioritise their career
2. people cohabit before getting married
79
what was the % of couples who got married in a church in 1981?
60%
80
what was the % of couples who got married in a church in 2013?
28%
81
2 reasons why less people are getting married in a church
1. secularisation
2. some churches may refuse to remarry divorcees, or divorcees may have less desire to marry in church
82
SAME-SEX RELATIONSHIPS
83
what % of the adult population have same-sex relationships?
5.7%
84
why is it difficult measure the increase of same-sex relationships?
because in the past, stigma and illegality meant that these relationships were more likely to be hidden
85
when were male homosexual acts decriminalised for adults over 21?
1967
86
what has the age of consent since been lowered to?
16
87
what were cohabiting couples given in 2002?
the same right to adopt and married couples
88
since when have same-sex couples been able to marry?
2014
89
what does Jeffrey Weeks (1999) argue increased social acceptance has led to?
a trend towards same-sex cohabitation and stable relationships
90
what does Weeks see homosexuals as creating families based on?
friendship and kinship
91
what does Weeks call this type of family?
chosen families
92
what does Weeks say chosen families offer?
the same security and stability as heterosexual families
93
what does Kath Weston describe same-sex cohabitation as?
quasi-marriage
94
what does Anna Einasdottir say homosexuals fear about marriage?
it may limit the flexibility and negotiability of relationships
95
ONE-PERSON HOUSEHOLDS
96
how much has the number of people living alone increased by?
a fifth from 6.8 million in 1999 to 8.2 million in 2019
97
what is the increase of one-person households driven by?
the growth in numbers of men living alone predominantly aged 45 to 64
98
3 reasons why there is an increase in men living alone
1. higher proportions of men than women never marry
2. men marry at older ages than women and marry women younger than themselves
3. partnership dissolution has led to men living alone while women may live with children from the relationship
99
what % of one-person households are over 65
40%
100
what has an increae in led to a rise in one-person households?
an increase in separation and divorce
101
why does an increase in separation and divorce led to an increase in one-person households?
because following divorce children are more likely to live with their mother
102
how many adults are 'living apart together' (LATs)?
1 in 20
103
what are LATs?
couples in a significant relationship but aren't married or cohabiting
104
what does the increase in LATs reflect?
a trend towards less formalised relationships and 'families of choice'
105
what did Duncan and Phillips say plays a part in whether couples live together?
choice and constraint
106
what are public attitudes towards LATs?
favourable
107
what % see LATs as their ideal relationship?
20%
108
CHILDBEARING
109
4 key patterns in childbearing
1. an increasing number of births outside marriage
2. women have children later in life
3. women have fewer children than in the 20th century
4. more women remain childless
110
what was the number of births outside marriage in 1900?
4%
111
what is the number of births outside marriage today?
47%
112
what couples have most of the births outside marriage been to?
cohabiting couples
113
how much has the average woman's age at the birth increased?
by 4 years in the 70s to 28.1 in 2012
114
how much has the average number of children per woman decreased?
2.95 in 1964 to 1.94 in 2010
115
what fraction of those born in 1974 will be childless when they reach the age of 45?
one quarter
116
4 reasons for changes in childbearing trends?
1. changing attitudes
2. control of births
3. changing opportunities for women
4. changing values
117
how have changing attitudes towards childbearing changed?
there is greater tolerance of births outside marriage than in the past
118
how were unmarried mothers described in the 50s?
'psychologically disturbed'
119
how were births outside marriages defined as?
'illegitimate'
120
how has control of births led to a change in childbearing?
reliable contraception was made available on the NHS in 1967 to all women so it's possible for women to control the number of births they want
121
how has changing opportunities for women led to a change in childbearing?
women have other options than mother hood e.g., university, paid employment, careers
122
how has changing values led to a change in childbearing?
there has been an increasing emphasis on individual freedom, right to choose and personal fulfilment
123
LONE PARENT FAMILIES
124
what is a lone parent family?
a mother or father without a partner, with their dependent child/ren
125
what % of families do lone-parent families make up?
25%
126
what % of lone-parent families are headed by women?
90%
127
4 ways lone-parents become lone-parents
1. the ending of a marriage
2. the ending of a cohabitation
3. birth to a never married, single woman
4. death of a partner
128
4 reasons for the increase in lone-parent families
1. increase in the divorce rate
2. cohabitation break up
3. non-cohabiting never-married mothers
4. change in attitudes
129
how has an increase in the divorce rate led to an increase in lone-parent families?
more married couples are breaking up, the amount of single parent families increases
130
how has cohabitation break up led to an increase in lone-parent families?
cohabiting couples separate and if they've had children, a single parent family will be created
131
how does non-cohabiting never-married mothers led to an increase in lone-parent families?
these are single women who had pregnant and have a child/ren which have increased due to a change in social attitudes
132
how has changing attitudes led to an increase in lone-parent families?
there is greater tolerance of births outside marriage and the stigma has reduced
133
what do the new right think about lone-parent families?
there's no father present to discipline the children which leads to under-achievement at school
134
what does Charles Murray (1984) claim about lone mothers?
they become 'married to the state' and become dependent on state benefits
135
what does Murray say is the solution to welfare dependent mothers?
abolish welfare benefits which reduces the dependency culture that encourages births outside of marriage
136
what did Ford and Millar (1998) say about the new right arguments about state benefits and lone parents?
it is flawed as most experience poverty, debt, and material hardship
137
what do feminists say lone-parenthood usually means?
lone-mothers
138
what do feminists argue that an increase in lone-parenthood indicates?
women have the freedom to choose and can escape male domination
139
why do feminists think lone-parenthood is labelled negatively?
because it doesn't fit the family ideology of the traditional nuclear family
140
what do feminists say the new right ignore?
single parenthood may be preferrable to the domestic violence that is inflicted by some husbands
141
what did Burghes and Brown (1995) study?
teenage single mothers
142
what research methods did Burghes and Brown (1995) use?
a qualitative study using unstrutured interviews
143
how many p's were there
31 teen mothers who had never been married
144
what views did most of the p's express?
anti-abortion views
145
what did most of the p's report about their experience of lone motherhood?
a mixture of hard work and enormous joy
146
RECONSTITUTED FAMILIES
147
what is a reconstituted family?
a married or cohabiting family with dependent children, one or more of whom is from a previous relationship
148
what are the main causes of reconstituted families?
divorce and remarriage
149
what % of families with dependent children were reconstituted families?
10%
150
what do an increasing number of children experience?
co-parenting
151
what is co-parenting?
when children spend half their week with their mothher and half their week with their father
152
what did Ferri and Smith (1998) say reconstituted families are similar to?
first families
153
what did they say stepfamilies are at a greater risk of?
poverty
154
when are reconstituted families formed?
when lone parents form new partnerships
155
what % of children come from the woman's previous relationship in reconstituted families?
85%
156
why do more children come from the woman's relationship in reconstituted families?
because when couples break up, children are more likely to remain with their mother
157
why are reconsituted families at greater risk of poverty?
there are often more children
158
what are tensions faced by reconstituted families the result of?
a lack of clear social norms about how individuals should behave in such families
159
ETHNICITY AND THE FAMILY TODAY
160
what ethnicity is most likely to be married?
asian and asian british (88%)
161
what ethnicity is least likely to be cohabiting?
asian and asian british (1%)
162
what ethnicity is least likely to be married?
black and black british (43%)
163
what ethnicity is most likely to cohabit?
white (16%)
164
what has helped to create greater ethnic diversity?
immigration into Britain
165
what % of the UK population were white according to the 2011 census?
86%
166
what % of the UK population were asian or asian british according to the 2011 census?
7.5%
167
what % of the UK population were black or black british according to the 2011 census?
3.3%
168
what % of the UK population were mixed according to the 2011 census?
2.2%
169
what % of the UK population were white according to the 2021 census?
81%
170
what % of the UK population were asian or asian british according to the 2021 census?
9.3%
171
what % of the UK population were black or black british according to the 2021 census?
4%
172
what % of the UK population were mixed according to the 2021 census?
2.9%
173
what ethnicity are more likely to have larger households than those of any other ethnic groups?
bangladeshi, pakistani and indian
174
how many generations do asian households sometimes contain?
3
175
what type of household are asian families likely to be?
nuclear
176
what are larger asian households partly the result of?
the younger age profile of british asians, since a higher population are in the childbering age groups compared to the population as a whole
177
what religious or ethnic groups are most likely to live in extended family units?
sikhs, hindus and muslims
178
what did richard berthoud find in his study about asian people?
they tend to be more traditional in their family values than white people in britain
179
what did berthoud claim there is evidence of?
attitude to the family role of women differ between asian groups
180
what do black caribbean and black african families have a higher proportion of?
lone-parent households
181
what are 3 things berthoud (1999) find out african caribbeans have?
1. the lowest marriage rate
2. the highest propotion of single never married mothers
3. the highest divorce rate
182
what is one reason for these statistics?
male unemployment and poverty meant that black men are less able to provide for their family
183
what does berthoud (2003) suggest young african caribbean women is characterised by?
modern individualism
184
what are 2 reasons why young african caribbean women are choosing to bring up children alone?
1. african caribbean women are more likely to be employed than african caribbean men
2. african caribbean single mothers are suported by an extended kinship network such as family friends
185
what ethnicity did Lucinda Platt (2009) is more likely to intermarry with members of another ethnic group?
african caribbean, especially white people
186
what fraction of african caribbean children live with 2 black parents?
one-quarter
187
what does Ali (2002) note that dual-heritage families result in?
inter-ethnic families and mixed-race children
188
how much has the number of children of caribbean heritage and one white parent risen by?
39% to 49%
189
in contrast, what % of indians are in mixed-race marriages?
11%
190
THE EXTENDED FAMILY TODAY
191
what is an extended family?
a group of people related by blood, marriage or adoption extended beyond the nuclear family
192
3 ways the family may be extended?
1. vertically e.g., grandparents
2. horizontally e.g., aunts, uncles, cousins
3. both
193
what do functionalists see the extended family as?
the dominant family type in pre-industrial society
194
what did Nickie Charles (2008) find about the classic 3 generational family?
it is all but extinct
195
what is a granny flat?
when adult children are caring for an aged parent
196
what is happening to granny flats?
they are experiencing to revival
197
what is the growth in the number of extended families the result of?
ecnomic pressures
198
what do economic pressures mean?
parents and their adult children may not have the economic resources to pay for private residential care homes
199
what does Peter Willmott (1988) say the extended family continues to exist as?
a dispersed extended family
200
what is a dispersed extended family?
where relatives are geographically separated but maintain frequent contact through visits and phone calls
201
what are multiple nuclear families?
families that are geographically dispersed but continue to provide support
202
why does Chamberlain suggest the extended family survives?
because it performs important functions for its members
203
what type of help is more frequent among the m/c?
financial help from father to son
204
what type of help is more common among the w/c?
domestic help from mother to daughter
205
what is a beanpole family?
a nuclear family with 1 or 2 children who maintain regular contact with grandparents and great grandparents
206
what are 4 factors Julia Brannen (2003) say has led to the emergence of four-generational families?
1. the ageing population
2. women pursuing a career
3. decline in fertility
4. availability of divorce
207
what are beanpole families less likely to experience?
horizontal intragenerational ties
208
what happens when family size shrinks?
the relationship between grandparents and grandchildren becomes more intense
209
what is there a growing recognition that families benefit from?
the presence of grandparents as grandparents today live longer
210
MODERNISM AND THE NUCLEAR FAMILY
211
what does modernist mean?
they see modern society as having a fairly fixed, clear cut and predictable structure
212
2 examples of modernist perspectives
functionalists and the new right
213
what family type do they see as the best?
the nuclear family
214
how does Parsons argue the nuclear family is uniquely suited to modern society?
for a workplace that is geographically and socially mobile
215
what 2 functions does the nuclear family provide according to Parsons?
1. primary socialisation
2. the stabalisation of adult personalities
216
what do the new right think the best way for children to be socialised is?
the nuclear family
217
what does chester see the only important change to family diversity is?
a move from the dominance of the traditional or conventional nuclear family to the neo-conventional family
218
what is the neo-conventional family?
a dual-earner family in which both spouses go to work
219
why does chester argue most people aren't choosing to live in alternative family types?
the nuclear family is the ideal which most people aspire for
220
why does Chester argue many people are not part of a nuclear family at one time?
due to the life cycle e.g., people who live in a one-person household are either part of a nuclear family or will be in the future
221
why are statistics on household composition misleading?
they are a snapshot of a single moment in time
222
2 patterns identified by Chester that shows little has changed in family patterns
1. most people live in a household headed by a married couple
2. most marriage continue until death
223
what family type does Chester see as dominant?
the nuclear family
224
why does Chester call the modern nuclear family the neo-convential family?
it is still a nuclear family but roles are now more equal
225
how does Chester's study support functionalists and the new right?
Chester sees the nuclear family as dominant
226
how does Chester's study criticise functionalists and the new right?
he doesn't see family diversity as significant
227
what do Rappaport and Rappaport (1982) believe we have moved away from?
the traditional nuclear family
228
what do Rappaport and Rappaport (1982) believe we have moved towards?
a range of family types to adapt a pluralistic society
229
what do Rappaport and Rappaport (1982) claim family diversity represents?
greater freedom of choice as a response to people's different needs and
wishes
230
what 5 types of family diversity did Rappaport and Rappaport (1982) identify?
1. organisational diversity
2. cultural diversity
3. social class diversity
4. life stage diversity
5. generational diversity
231
what is organisational diversity?
the different ways families are organised e.g., nuclear family, extended family
232
what is cultural diversity?
differences from the different norms and values of different cultures
233
what is social class diversity?
different views held by people with households of different social classes
234
what is life-stage diversity?
diversity caused by the different stages people have reached in their lives
235
what is generational diversity?
older and younger generations have different attitudes and experiences that reflect the historical periods they lived
236
one strength of Rappaport and Rappaport (1982)
they acknowledge how diverse families can be today
237
one weakness of Rappaport and Rappaport (1982)
postmodernists argue they don't go far enough in recognising the ways families can be diverse
238
POSTMODERNITY AND THE FAMILY TODAY
239
3 features of the modern world
- predictable
- orderly stucture
- clear expectations
240
2 features of the late modern world
- increase in choice and diversity
- less predictable
241
3 features of the postmodern world
- family structures are fragmented
- more choice
- risk and uncertainty
242
one advantage of the greater choice and diversity in family life
gives individuals more choice to choose the kind of family and personal relationships that meet their needs
243
one disadvantage of the greater choice and diversity in family life
greater choice means a greater risk of instability, since these relationships are more likely to break up
244
how does Stacey argue more choice has benefitted women?
it allows them to escape the patriarchy and create new types of family that better suit their needs
245
how does Giddens (1992) argue there's a more equal relationship between men and women?
contraception and feminism
246
what does Beck (1992) argue the type of society we live in?
a risk society
247
what is a risk society?
a society where people have more choice which contrasts with an earlier time where roles were fixed
248
what does Beck and Beck-Gernshein (1995) argue greater gender equality and individualism has led to?
a new family called the negotiated family
249
what is the negotiated family?
where a family vary according to the wishes and expectations of the members
250
what does Jeffrey Weeks (2000) argue there has been a greater acceptance of?
sexual and family diversity
251
one criticism of the personal life perspective of diversity
it exaggerates how much choice people have about family relationships today
