Ch.6

Question 1

define sensation

Answer 1

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Question 2

what is prosopagnosia?

Answer 2

face blindness (the inability to recognize faces)

Question 3

what is phonopagnosia?

Answer 3

voice blindness (the inability to recognize voices)

Question 4

define perception

Answer 4

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Question 5

define Bottom-up processing

Answer 5

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

Question 6

define Top-down processing

Answer 6

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Question 7

what three things do all our sense do?

Answer 7

(1) receive sensory stimulation, often using specialized receptor cells.
(2) transform that stimulation into neural impulses.
(3) deliver the neural information to our brain.

Question 8

define transduction

Answer 8

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret

Question 9

define Psychophysics

Answer 9

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

Question 10

What is the rough distinction between sensation and perception?

Answer 10

Sensation is the bottom-up process by which our sensory receptors and our nervous system receive and represent stimuli. Perception is the top-down process in which our brain creates meaning by organizing and interpreting what our senses detect.

Question 11

define absolute threshold

Answer 11

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

Question 12

who was the German scientist and philosopher who studied absolute thresholds and coined the term?

Answer 12

Gustav Fechner

Question 13

What else may detecting a weak stimuli be dependent on besides its stimuli strength?

Answer 13

our psychological states

perception is affected by our experience, expectations, alertness and motivation

Question 14

define signal detection theory

Answer 14

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness

Question 15

define subliminal

Answer 15

below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness

Question 16

____ stimuli are stimuli that you cannot detect 50% of the time

Answer 16

subliminal

Question 17

define prime

Answer 17

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

Question 18

An unnoticed image or word can reach your visual cortex and briefly ____ your response to a later question

Answer 18

prime

Question 19

stimulus only reaches concious awareness when…?

Answer 19

it triggers synchronized activity in multiple brain areas

Question 20

define difference threshold

Answer 20

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd)

Question 21

define weber’s law

Answer 21

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

Question 22

define sensory adaptation

Answer 22

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

Question 23

why doesn’t an object disappear from our sight if we stare at it for a long time/Why doesnt sensory adaption occur when we stare at something?

Answer 23

continual flitting from one spot to another ensures that stimulation on the eyes’ receptors continually changes

Question 24

while sensory adaptation reduces our sensitivity, it allows us….?

Answer 24

the freedom to focus on informative changes in our environment without being distracted by background chatter

Question 25

We ____ the world not exactly as it is, but as it is useful for us to _____ it.

Answer 25

perceive

perceive

Question 26

Why is it that after wearing shoes for a while, you cease to notice them (until questions like this draw your attention back to them)?

Answer 26

The shoes provide constant stimulation. Sensory adaptation allows us to focus on changing stimuli.

Question 27

define perceptual set

Answer 27

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Question 28

Imagine hearing a noise interrupted by the words “eel is on the wagon.” Likely, you would actually perceive the first word as wheel. Given “eel is on the orange,” you would more likely hear peel. what does this phenomenon suggest?

Answer 28

that the brain can work backward in time to allow a later stimulus to determine how we perceive an earlier one

Question 29

Does perceptual set involve bottom-up or top-down processing? Why?

Answer 29

It involves top-down processing. Our perceptual set influences our interpretation of stimuli based on our experiences, assumptions, and expectations.

Question 30

Perceptions are influenced, top-down, not only by our expectations and by the context, but also by our ____ and _____.

Answer 30

emotions

motivation

Question 31

What are sensation and perception?

Answer 31

Sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting this information, enabling recognition of meaningful events. Sensation and perception are actually parts of one continuous process.

Question 32

What do we mean by bottom-up processing and top-down processing?

Answer 32

Bottom-up processing is sensory analysis that begins at the entry level, with information flowing from the sensory receptors to the brain. Top-down processing is information processing guided by high-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions by filtering information through our experience and expectations.

Question 33

what effect do stimuli below the absolute threshold have on us?

Answer 33

riming (the often unconscious activation of certain associations that may predispose one’s perception, memory, or response)shows that we process some information from stimuli below our absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

Question 34

Does subliminal sensation enable subliminal persuasion?

Answer 34

Subliminal stimuli are those that are too weak to detect 50 percent of the time. While subliminal sensation is a fact, such sensations are too fleeting to enable exploitation with subliminal messages: There is no powerful, enduring effect.

Question 35

What is the function of sensory adaptation?

Answer 35

Sensory adaptation (our diminished sensitivity to constant or routine odors, sounds, and touches) focuses our attention on informative changes in our environment.

Question 36

How do our expectations, contexts, motivation, and emotions influence our perceptions?

Answer 36

Perceptual set is a mental predisposition that functions as a lens through which we perceive the world. Our learned concepts (schemas) prime us to organize and interpret ambiguous stimuli in certain ways. Our physical and emotional context, as well as our motivation, can create expectations and color our interpretation of events and behaviors.

Question 37

define wavelength

Answer 37

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission

Question 38

define hue

Answer 38

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

Question 39

define intensity

Answer 39

the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height)

Question 40

define pupil

Answer 40

he adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

Question 41

define iris

Answer 41

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

Question 42

when you feel disgust or are about to answer no to a question what do your pupils do?

Answer 42

constrict

Question 43

when you are feeling amorous what do your pupils do? what does this signal?

Answer 43

your pupils dilate and your dark eyes subtly signal your interest

Question 44

define lens

Answer 44

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

Question 45

define retina

Answer 45

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

Question 46

define accommodation

Answer 46

1) in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. (2) in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

Question 47

define rods

Answer 47

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond

Question 48

define cones

Answer 48

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

Question 49

what are the names of the two buried receptor cells that cover the back of the eye?

Answer 49

rods and cones

Question 50

define optic nerve

Answer 50

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Question 51

what is the optic nerve made up of?

Answer 51

ganglion cells intertwined axons

Question 52

approximately how many ganglion nerves is the optic nerve made up of?

Answer 52

1 million

Question 53

approximately how many nerves is the auditory nerve made up of?

Answer 53

30,000 nerves

Question 54

how many messages can the optic nerve send at once?

Answer 54

about 1 million

Question 55

define blind spot

Answer 55

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there

Question 56

define fovea

Answer 56

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster

Question 57

light energy triggers a chemical change which sparks neural signals which activate the _______ cells

Answer 57

bipolar cells

Question 58

___ cells activate the ganglion cells which sends visual sensory information to the brain

Answer 58

bipolar

Question 59

do cones have their own bipolar cells dedicated to each cone? what effect does this have?

Answer 59

yes. The direct connections preserve the cones’ precise information, making them better able to detect fine detail.

Question 60

do rods have their own bipolar cells dedicated to each rod? what effect does this have?

Answer 60

no. this causes visual infromation from rods to be less distinct and blurry

Question 61

how long does it take for your eyes to adjust to darkness? What does this coincide with and may be the reasoning for?

Answer 61

about 20 minutes which is the average twilight transition time between the sun setting and darkness

Question 62

Some nocturnal animals, such as toads, mice, rats, and bats, have impressive night vision thanks to having many more ____ (rods/cones) than ______(rods/cones) in their retinas. These creatures probably have very poor ______(color/black-and-white) vision.

Answer 62

rods
cones
colour

Question 63

Cats are able to open their ______________ much wider than we can, which allows more light into their eyes so they can see better at night.

Answer 63

pupils

Question 64

define Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

Answer 64

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color

Question 65

“colour blind” people are not actually colour blind but have _______

Answer 65

colour-deficient vision

Question 66

what causes people to be colour blind?

Answer 66

They simply lack functioning red-or green-sensitive cones, or sometimes both

Question 67

define opponent process theory

Answer 67

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

Question 68

What are two key theories of color vision? Are they contradictory or complementary?

Answer 68

The Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory shows that the retina contains color receptors for red, green, and blue. The opponent-process theory shows that we have opponent-process cells in the retina for red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black. These theories are complementary and outline the two stages of color vision: (1) The retina’s receptors for red, green, and blue respond to different color stimuli. (2) The receptors’ signals are then processed by the opponent-process cells on their way to the visual cortex in the brain.

Question 69

define feature detectors

Answer 69

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

Question 70

what happens when researchers can temporarily disrupt the brain’s face-processing areas with magnetic pulses?

Answer 70

people cannot recognize faces, but they can recognize houses, because the brain’s face-perception occurs separately from its object-perception

Question 71

define parallel processsing

Answer 71

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions

Question 72

What is the rapid sequence of events that occurs when you see and recognize a friend?

Answer 72

Light waves reflect off the person and travel into your eye, where the receptor cells in your retina convert the light waves’ energy into neural impulses sent to your brain. Your brain processes the subdimensions of this visual input–including depth, movement, form, and color–separately but simultaneously. It interprets this information based on previously stored information and your expectations into a conscious perception of your friend.

Question 73

define gestalt

Answer 73

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

Question 74

define figure ground

Answer 74

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

Question 75

define grouping

Answer 75

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

Question 76

In terms of perception, a band’s lead singer would be considered ___________ (figure/ground), and the other musicians would be considered ___________ (figure/ground).

Answer 76

figure

ground

Question 77

What do we mean when we say that, in perception, the whole may exceed the sum of its parts?

Answer 77

Gestalt psychologists used this saying to describe our perceptual tendency to organize clusters of sensations into meaningful forms or coherent groups.

Question 78

define depth perception

Answer 78

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

Question 79

define visual cliff

Answer 79

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Question 80

define binocular cues

Answer 80

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

Question 81

define retinal disparity

Answer 81

a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object

Question 82

what allows humans to perceive depth

Answer 82

having two eyes that are approx 2.5 inches a apart. images seen with greater retinal disparity are closer together

Question 83

How do we normally perceive depth?

Answer 83

We are normally able to perceive depth thanks to (1) binocular cues (which are based on our retinal disparity), and (2) monocular cues (which include relative height, relative size, interposition, linear perspective, light and shadow, and relative motion).

Question 84

define monocular cues

Answer 84

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

Question 85

what issues do brains have with perceiving motion

Answer 85

large and small objects move at the same speed, the large objects appear to move more slowly

Question 86

why are children more at risks for pedestrian accidents in terms of motion perception

Answer 86

Normally your brain computes motion based partly on its assumption that shrinking objects are retreating (not getting smaller) and enlarging objects are approaching. In young children, this ability to correctly perceive approaching (and enlarging) vehicles is not yet fully developed, which puts them at risk for pedestrian accidents

Question 87

Our brain also perceives a rapid series of slightly varying images as continuous _____

Answer 87

movement

Question 88

define phi phenomenon

Answer 88

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

Question 89

define perceptual constancy

Answer 89

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

Question 90

define colour constancy

Answer 90

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the objects

Question 91

could someone who was blind that can now see recognize shapes visually that the knew by touch?

Answer 91

no

Question 92

for normal sensory and perceptual development, there is a ______

Answer 92

critical period

Question 93

define perceptual adaptation

Answer 93

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

Question 94

Where are feature detectors located, and what do they do?

Answer 94

Feature detectors, located in the visual cortex, respond to specific features of the visual stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. Supercell clusters in other critical areas respond to more complex patterns.

Question 95

How does the brain use parallel processing to construct visual perceptions?

Answer 95

Through parallel processing, the brain handles many aspects of vision (color, movement, form, and depth) simultaneously. Other neural teams integrate the results, comparing them with stored information and enabling perceptions.

Question 96

How did the Gestalt psychologists understand perceptual organization, and how do figure-ground and grouping principles contribute to our perceptions?

Answer 96

Gestalt psychologists searched for rules by which the brain organizes fragments of sensory data into gestalts (from the German word for “whole”), or meaningful forms. In pointing out that the whole may exceed the sum of its parts, they noted that we filter sensory information and construct our perceptions.
To recognize an object, we must first perceive it (see it as a figure) as distinct from its surroundings (the ground). We bring order and form to stimuli by organizing them into meaningful groups, following such rules as proximity, continuity, and closure.

Question 97

How do we use binocular and monocular cues to perceive the world in three dimensions?

Answer 97

Depth perception is our ability to see objects in three dimensions and judge distance. The visual cliff and other research demonstrate that many species perceive the world in three dimensions at, or very soon after, birth. Binocular cues, such as retinal disparity, are depth cues that rely on information from both eyes. Monocular cues (such as relative size, interposition, relative height, relative motion, linear perspective, and light and shadow) let us judge depth using information transmitted by only one eye.

Question 98

how do we perceive motion?

Answer 98

As objects move, we assume that shrinking objects are retreating and enlarging objects are approaching. A quick succession of images on the retina can create an illusion of movement, as in stroboscopic movement or the phi phenomenon.

Question 99

How do perceptual constancies help us construct meaningful perceptions?

Answer 99

Perceptual constancy enables us to perceive objects as stable despite the changing image they cast on our retinas.

Question 100

what is the moon illusion?

Answer 100

The Moon looks up to 50 percent larger when near the horizon than when high in the sky because monocular cues to objects’ distances make the horizon Moon seem farther away. If it’s farther away, our brain assumes, it must be larger than the Moon high in the night sky

Question 101

What does research on restored reveal about the effects of experience on perception?

Answer 101

Experience guides our perceptual interpretations. People blind from birth who gained sight after surgery lack the experience to visually recognize shapes, forms, and complete faces.

Question 102

What does research on sensory restriction reveal about the effects of experience on perception?

Answer 102

Sensory restriction research indicates that there is a critical period for some aspects of sensory and perceptual development. Without early stimulation, the brain’s neural organization does not develop normally.

Question 103

What does research on perceptual adaptation reveal about the effects of experience on perception?

Answer 103

People given glasses that shift the world slightly to the left or right, or even upside down, experience perceptual adaptation. They are initially disoriented, but they manage to adapt to their new context.

Question 104

define audition

Answer 104

the sense or act of hearing

Question 105

define frequency

Answer 105

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

Question 106

the ____ of sound waves determines their loudness

Answer 106

amplitude

Question 107

the ____ of the sounds wavelengths determines the ___ of the sound

Answer 107

pitch

Question 108

define pitch

Answer 108

a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

Question 109

how does the measure of sound in decibels represent the intensity of the sound

Answer 109

Every 10 decibels correspond to a tenfold increase in sound intensity with 0 decibels representing the absolute threshold for hearing

Question 110

define middle ear

Answer 110

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window

Question 111

define cochlea

Answer 111

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

Question 112

define inner ear

Answer 112

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

Question 113

how many people in the world are affected by hearing loss?

Answer 113

360 million

Question 114

define sensorineural hearing loss

Answer 114

the most common form of hearing loss, also called nerve deafness; caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves

Question 115

define conduction hearing loss

Answer 115

less common form of hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

Question 116

how many teens have hearing loss?

Answer 116

1 in 5

Question 117

define cochlear implant

Answer 117

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

Question 118

What are the basic steps in transforming sound waves into perceived sound?

Answer 118

The outer ear collects sound waves, which are translated into mechanical waves by the middle ear and turned into fluid waves in the inner ear. The auditory nerve then translates the energy into electrical waves and sends them to the brain, which perceives and interprets the sound.

Question 119

The amplitude of a sound wave determines our perception of __________ (loudness/pitch)

Answer 119

loudness

Question 120

The longer the sound waves are, the ______________ (lower/higher) their frequency is and the ______________ (higher/lower) their pitch.

Answer 120

lower

lower

Question 121

how does your brain interpret loudness?

Answer 121

your brain interprets loudness from the number of activated hair cells.

Question 122

define place theory

Answer 122

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated

Question 123

define frequency theory

Answer 123

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Also called temporal theory.)

Question 124

give three reasons why a combination of the place theory and the frequency theory would work best

Answer 124

(1) Place theory best explains how we sense high pitches.
(2) Frequency theory best explains how we sense low pitches.
(3) Some combination of place and frequency theories seems to handle the pitches in the intermediate range.

Question 125

what are the two theories on how we discriminate pitch

Answer 125

place theory and frequency theory

Question 126

why is the placement of one ear on each side of the head ideal?

Answer 126

it allows for stereophonic hearing (3D hearing)

Question 127

In experiments, were strangers separated by a curtain, using their hands to touch only each other’s forearms, able to communicate anger, fear, disgust, love, gratitude, and sympathy?

Answer 127

yes, at much higher levels then chance

Question 128

what 4 basic and distinct skin senses is our “sense of touch” made up of?

Answer 128

warmth, cold, pain, pressure

Question 129

define nociceptors

Answer 129

sensory receptors that enable the perception of pain in response to potentially harmful stimuli.

Question 130

define gate control theory

Answer 130

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

Question 131

who came up with the gate control theory?

Answer 131

Wall and Melzack

Question 132

how many people experience phantom limb pain?

Answer 132

7 in 10 of those who lost limbs

Question 133

will people recall experiencing less pain if they have a short but painful right until the last second experience or a prolongued experience with more pain the slowly tapers of at the end experience?

Answer 133

people recall feeling less pain if they go the root in which pain slowly subsides vs abruptly ending

Question 134

can pain be socially created?

Answer 134

yes, when others are in pain your brain may mirror the brain activity of the person in pain causing you to feel pain. we are also more likely to experience pain in the presence of other

Question 135

what psychological things influence our feeling of pain?

Answer 135

our attention to pain and our expectations of pain

Question 136

when holding two pipes one which has warm water streaming through it and one which has cold water streaming through it what will we perceive the temperature of the water to be?

Answer 136

hot

Question 137

is it a possible for a person who is really into perhaps a soccer game to not realize they have broken a leg?

Answer 137

yes

Question 138

what is the up side of people with mutated genes that allow them to feel less or no pain?

Answer 138

it is helping with research to be able to block out pain in others

Question 139

what two things can naturally lead to diminished pain?

Answer 139

the release of endorphins and distraction from the pain

Question 140

define hypnosis

Answer 140

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

Question 141

what percentage of the population can be so hypnotized that they undergo major surgery without anesthesia?

Answer 141

about 10%

Question 142

how many people (%) can get pain relief hypnotism?

Answer 142

about 50%

Question 143

define dissociation

Answer 143

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

Question 144

define posthypnotic suggestion

Answer 144

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

Question 145

what are they two theories on how hypnosis works?

Answer 145

(1) hypnosis is a form of normal social influence

(2) hypnosis as a special dual-processing state of dissociation—a split between different levels of consciousness

Question 146

what does the dissociation theory of hypnosis explain?

Answer 146

(1) why people hypnotized for pain relief may show brain activity in areas that receive sensory information, but not in areas that normally process pain-related information
(2) xplains why, when no one is watching, hypnotized people may carry out posthypnotic suggestions

Question 147

name the 5 tastes

Answer 147

sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umami

Question 148

about how many taste buds does a person have?

Answer 148

200 or more

Question 149

how many taste receptors are there in a taste bud pore?

Answer 149

50-100

Question 150

how do taste receptor cells taste food?

Answer 150

they project antenna-like hairs that sense food molecules

Question 151

as you age your number of taste buds ____. what things can accelerate this?

Answer 151

decreases. smoking and drinking alcohol can increase this decline

Question 152

is our sense of taste affected by our expectations?

Answer 152

yes. people like sausage that was labeled meat over the same sausage labelled vege. people also prefered wine that was labeled more expensive even if it was indentical to the cheap stuff

Question 153

how many receptor cells are in the nose?

Answer 153

20 million

Question 154

do men or women have a better sense of smell?

Answer 154

woman, especially young women

Question 155

do past associations affect your perception of a smell?

Answer 155

yes

Question 156

How does our system for sensing smell differ from our sensory systems for touch and taste?

Answer 156

We have four basic touch senses and five basic taste sensations. But we have no basic smell receptors. Instead, different combinations of odor receptors send messages to the brain, enabling us to recognize some 10,000 different smells.

Question 157

define kinesthisia

Answer 157

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

Question 158

define vestibular sense

Answer 158

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

Question 159

what allows us to sense what direction our head is tilted?

Answer 159

vestibular sacs in our inner ear

Question 160

Where are the kinesthetic receptors and the vestibular sense receptors located?

Answer 160

Kinesthetic receptors are located in our joints, tendons, and muscles. Vestibular sense receptors are located in our inner ear.

Question 161

Smell + texture + taste=?

Answer 161

flavour

Question 162

define sensory interaction

Answer 162

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

Question 163

Seeing the mouth movements for ga while hearing ba we may perceive da. what is this phenomenon called?

Answer 163

McGurk effect

Question 164

define embodied cognition

Answer 164

in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments

Question 165

define Extrasensory perception (ESP)

Answer 165

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

Question 166

define parapsychology

Answer 166

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

Question 167

What are the characteristics of air pressure waves that we hear as sound?

Answer 167

Sound waves are bands of compressed and expanded air. Our ears detect these changes in air pressure and transform them into neural impulses, which the brain decodes as sound. Sound waves vary in amplitude, which we perceive as differing loudness, and in frequency, which we experience as differing pitch.

Question 168

How does the ear transform sound energy into neural messages?

Answer 168

Through a mechanical chain of events, sound waves traveling through the auditory canal cause tiny vibrations in the eardrum. The bones of the middle ear amplify the vibrations and relay them to the fluid-filled cochlea. Rippling of the basilar membrane, caused by pressure changes in the cochlear fluid, causes movement of the tiny hair cells, triggering neural messages to be sent (via the thalamus) to the auditory cortex in the brain.

Question 169

what is the layout of the ear

Answer 169

The outer ear is the visible portion of the ear. The middle ear is the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea. The inner ear consists of the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

Question 170

how does sensorineural hearing loss (or nerve deafness) occurs

Answer 170

it occurs from damage to the cochlea’s hair cells or their associated nerves.

Question 171

how does conduction hearing loss occur

Answer 171

it occurs from damage to the mechanical system that transmits sound waves to the cochlea. Cochlear implants can restore hearing for some people.

Question 172

How do we detect loudness?

Answer 172

Loudness is not related to the intensity of a hair cell’s response. The brain interprets loudness from the number of activated hair cells.

Question 173

How do we discriminate pitch?

Answer 173

Place theory explains how we hear high-pitched sounds, and frequency theory explains how we hear low-pitched sounds. (A combination of the two theories explains how we hear pitches in the middle range.) Place theory proposes that our brain interprets a particular pitch by decoding the place where a sound wave stimulates the cochlea’s basilar membrane. Frequency theory proposes that the brain deciphers the frequency of the neural impulses traveling up the auditory nerve to the brain.

Question 174

How do we locate sounds?

Answer 174

Sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely than the other. To locate sounds, the brain analyzes the minute differences in the sounds received by the two ears and computes the sound’s source.

Question 175

How do we sense touch?

Answer 175

Our sense of touch is actually several senses—pressure, warmth, cold, and pain—that combine to produce other sensations, such as “hot.”

Question 176

What biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences affect our experience of pain?

Answer 176

Pain reflects bottom-up sensations (such as input from nociceptors, the sensory receptors that detect hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals) and top-down processes (such as experience, attention, and culture). One theory of pain is that a “gate” in the spinal cord either opens to permit pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers to reach the brain, or closes to prevent their passage. The biopsychosocial perspective views our perception of pain as the sum of biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences. For example, our experience of pain is influenced by activity in the spinal cord’s large and small fibers (a biological influence), attention to pain (a psychological influence), and cultural expectations (a social-cultural influence).

Question 177

How do placebos help control pain?

Answer 177

Placebos can help by dampening the central nervous system’s attention and response to painful experiences.

Question 178

How does distraction help control pain?

Answer 178

draw people’s attention away from painful stimulation.

Question 179

How does hypnosis help control pain?

Answer 179

Hypnosis, which increases our response to suggestions, can also help relieve pain. Posthypnotic suggestion is used by some clinicians to control undesired symptoms.

Question 180

In what ways are our senses of taste and smell similar, and how do they differ?

Answer 180

Taste and smell are both chemical senses. Taste is a composite of five basic sensations and of the aromas that interact with information from the taste receptor cells of the taste buds.
There are no basic sensations for smell. We smell something when molecules of a substance carried in the air reach a tiny cluster of 20 million receptor cells at the top of each nasal cavity. Odor molecules trigger combinations of receptors, in patterns that the olfactory cortex interprets. The receptor cells send messages to the brain’s olfactory bulb, then to the temporal lobe, and to parts of the limbic system.

Question 181

How do we sense our body’s position and movement?

Answer 181

Through kinesthesia, we sense the position and movement of our body parts. We monitor our head’s (and thus our body’s) position and movement, and maintain our balance, with our vestibular sense.

Question 182

How does sensory interaction influence our perceptions?

Answer 182

Our senses can influence one another. This sensory interaction occurs, for example, when the smell of a favorite food amplifies its taste

Question 183

what is embodied cognition?

Answer 183

Embodied cognition is the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.