Ch. 8

Question 1

define memory

Answer 1

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Question 2

define recall

Answer 2

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

Question 3

define recognition

Answer 3

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Question 4

define relearning

Answer 4

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

Question 5

what are recall, recognition and relearning?

Answer 5

the three measures of retention

Question 6

recall is….?

Answer 6

retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time

Question 7

what type of test tests your recall?

Answer 7

A fill-in-the-blank question tests your recall.

Question 8

what type of test tests your recognition?

Answer 8

A multiple-choice question tests your recognition.

Question 9

give an example of relearning

Answer 9

When you study for a final exam or engage a language used in early childhood, you will relearn the material more easily than you did initially.

Question 10

recognition is…?

Answer 10

identifying items previously learned

Question 11

relearning is….?

Answer 11

learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time

Question 12

who pioneered memory research

Answer 12

researcher Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909)

Question 13

we ____ more than we ___

Answer 13

remember

recall

Question 14

If you want to be sure to remember what you’re learning for an upcoming test, would it be better to use recall or recognition to check your memory? Why?

Answer 14

recall is better than recognize because recalling is harder than recognizing it. So if you can recall it, that means your retention of the material is better

Question 15

An ____-____ model likens human memory to computer operations

Answer 15

information-processing

Question 16

define encoding

Answer 16

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning

Question 17

define storage

Answer 17

the process of retaining encoded information over time

Question 18

define retrieval

Answer 18

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Question 19

define parallel processing

Answer 19

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions

Question 20

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) proposed a three-stage model:

(1) We first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting ____ memory.
(2) From there, we process information into ____-____ memory, where we encode it through rehearsal.
(3) Finally, information moves into ____-____ for later retrieval.

Answer 20

sensory
short-term
long-term memory

Question 21

define working memory

Answer 21

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Question 22

What two new concepts update the classic Atkinson-Shiffrin three-stage information-processing model?

Answer 22

(1) We form some memories through automatic processing, without our awareness. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model focused only on conscious memories. (2) The newer concept of a working memory emphasizes the active processing that we now know takes place in Atkinson-Shiffrin’s short-term memory stage.

Question 23

What are two basic functions of working memory?

Answer 23

(1) Active processing of incoming visual-spatial and auditory information, and (2) focusing our spotlight of attention.

Question 24

define explicit memories

Answer 24

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.)

Question 25

define effortful processing

Answer 25

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Question 26

define automatic processing

Answer 26

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Question 27

define implicit memories

Answer 27

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

Question 28

what 3 things do you automatically process information about without conscious effort

Answer 28

space
time
frequency

Question 29

define iconic memory

Answer 29

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Question 30

define echoic memory

Answer 30

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Question 31

Compared with children and older adults, young adults have ___ working memory capacity and their ability to multitask is relatively ____

Answer 31

more

greater

Question 32

Unlike short-term memory capacity, working memory capacity appears to reflect intelligence level. true or false

Answer 32

true

Question 33

What is the difference between automatic and effortful processing, and what are some examples of each?

Answer 33

Automatic processing occurs unconsciously (automatically) for such things as the sequence and frequency of a day’s events, and reading and comprehending words in our own language. Effortful processing requires attention and awareness and happens, for example, when we work hard to learn new material in class, or new lines for a play.

Question 34

At which of Atkinson-Shiffrin’s three memory stages would iconic and echoic memory occur?

Answer 34

sensory memory

Question 35

define chunking

Answer 35

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Question 36

define mnemonics

Answer 36

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Question 37

what are the three main memory tricks?

Answer 37

chunking
mnemonics
hierarchies

Question 38

define spacing effect

Answer 38

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Question 39

define testing effect

Answer 39

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

Question 40

define shallow-processing

Answer 40

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

Question 41

define deep-processing

Answer 41

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Question 42

what is the self-reference effect

Answer 42

Information deemed “relevant to me” is processed more deeply and remains more accessible

Question 43

Which strategies are better for long-term retention: cramming and rereading material, or spreading out learning over time and repeatedly testing yourself?

Answer 43

Although cramming may lead to short-term gains in knowledge, distributed practice and repeated self-testing will result in the greatest long-term retention.

Question 44

If you try to make the material you are learning personally meaningful, are you processing at a shallow or a deep level? Which level leads to greater retention?

Answer 44

Making material personally meaningful involves processing at a deep level, because you are processing semantically—based on the meaning of the words. Deep processing leads to greater retention.

Question 45

What is memory, and how is it measured?

Answer 45

Memory is learning that has persisted over time, through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. Evidence of memory may be recalling information, recognizing it, or relearning it more easily on a later attempt.

Question 46

How do psychologists describe the human memory system?

Answer 46

psychologists use memory models to think and communicate about memory. Information-processing models involve three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Our agile brain processes many things simultaneously (some of them unconsciously) by means of parallel processing. The connectionism information-processing model focuses on this multitrack processing, viewing memories as products of interconnected neural networks. The three processing stages in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model are sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. This model has since been updated to include two important concepts: (1) working memory, to stress the active processing occurring in the second memory stage; and (2) automatic processing, to address the processing of information outside of conscious awareness.

Question 47

How do explicit and implicit memories differ?

Answer 47

The human brain processes information on dual tracks, consciously and unconsciously. Explicit (declarative) memories—our conscious memories of facts and experiences—form through effortful processing, which requires conscious effort and attention. Implicit (nondeclarative) memories—of skills and classically conditioned associations—happen without our awareness, through automatic processing.

Question 48

What information do we process automatically?

Answer 48

In addition to skills and classically conditioned associations, we automatically process incidental information about space, time, and frequency.

Question 49

How does sensory memory work?

Answer 49

sensory memory feeds some information into working memory for active processing there. An iconic memory is a very brief (a few tenths of a second) sensory memory of visual stimuli; an echoic memory is a three- or four-second sensory memory of auditory stimuli.

Question 50

What is the capacity of our short-term and working memory?

Answer 50

Short-term memory capacity is about seven items, plus or minus two, but this information disappears from memory quickly without rehearsal. Working memory capacity varies, depending on age, intelligence level, and other factors.

Question 51

What are some effortful processing strategies that can help us remember new information?

Answer 51

Effective effortful processing strategies include chunking, mnemonics, hierarchies, and distributed practice sessions. The testing effect is enhanced memory after consciously retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.

Question 52

What are the levels of processing, and how do they affect encoding?

Answer 52

Depth of processing affects long-term retention. In shallow processing, we encode words based on their structure or appearance. Retention is best when we use deep processing, encoding words based on their meaning. We also more easily remember material that is personally meaningful—the self-reference effect.

Question 53

Are memories stored in a specific part of brain?

Answer 53

no, they are stored all over

Question 54

what brain structures does the network that processes and stores your explicit memories for facts and episodes contain?

Answer 54

frontal lobes and hippocampus

Question 55

Explicit memories for facts and episodes are processed in the ____ and fed to other brain regions for storage.

Answer 55

hippocampus

Question 56

define hippocampus

Answer 56

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

Question 57

With ____-hippocampus damage, people have trouble remembering verbal information, but they have no trouble recalling visual designs and locations

Answer 57

left

Question 58

With _____-hippocampus damage, people have trouble recalling visual designs and locations , but they have no trouble remembering verbal information

Answer 58

right

Question 59

define memory consolidation

Answer 59

the neural storage of a long-term memory

Question 60

____ supports memory consolidation

Answer 60

Sleep

Question 61

The ____ plays a key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning

Answer 61

cerebellum

Question 62

With a damaged cerebellum, people ____ develop certain conditioned reflexes

Answer 62

cannot

Question 63

The ____ ____-, deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills

Answer 63

basal ganglia

Question 64

what two influences contribute to infantile amnesia?

Answer 64

(1) we index much of our explicit memory using words that nonspeaking children have not learned
(2) the hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to mature, and as it does, more gets retained

Question 65

Which parts of the brain are important for implicit memory processing?

Answer 65

The cerebellum and basal ganglia

Question 66

which parts play a key role in explicit memory processing?

Answer 66

frontal lobes and hippocampus

Question 67

Your friend has experienced brain damage in an accident. He can remember how to tie his shoes but has a hard time remembering anything told to him during a conversation. What’s going on here?

Answer 67

Our explicit conscious memories of facts and episodes differ from our implicit memories of skills (such as shoe tying) and classically conditioned responses. Our implicit memories are processed by more ancient brain areas, which apparently escaped damage during the accident.

Question 68

Our emotions trigger stress hormones that influence _____ ______

Answer 68

memory formation

Question 69

____ provokes the amygdala to initiate a memory trace in the frontal lobes and basal ganglia and to boost activity in the brain’s memory-forming areas

Answer 69

stress

Question 70

define flashbulb memory

Answer 70

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Question 71

define Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Answer 71

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

Question 72

After long-term potentiation has occurred, passing an electric current through the brain ___ disrupt old memories but the current ___ wipe out very recent memories

Answer 72

won’t

will

Question 73

what is electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and who is it used on?

Answer 73

a shock that makes people forget short term memories

severely depressed people

Question 74

Which brain area responds to stress hormones by helping to create stronger memories?

Answer 74

the amygdala

Question 75

The neural basis for learning and memory, found at the synapses in the brain’s memory-circuit connections, results from brief, rapid stimulation. It is called _________-__________ _________.

Answer 75

long-term potentiation

Question 76

define priming

Answer 76

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

Question 77

define encoding specificity principle

Answer 77

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

Question 78

what is state-dependent memory

Answer 78

What we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state

Question 79

define mood-congruent memory

Answer 79

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

Question 80

define serial position effect

Answer 80

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first (a primacy effect) items in a list

Question 81

What is priming?

Answer 81

Priming is the activation (often without our awareness) of associations. Seeing a gun, for example, might temporarily predispose someone to interpret an ambiguous face as threatening or to recall a boss as nasty.

Question 82

When we are tested immediately after viewing a list of words, we tend to recall the first and last items best, which is known as the __________ ________ effect.

Answer 82

serial position

Question 83

What is the capacity of long-term memory?

Answer 83

essentially unlimited

Question 84

Are our long-term memories processed and stored in specific locations?

Answer 84

Memories are not stored intact in the brain in single spots. Many parts of the brain interact as we encode, store, and retrieve memories.

Question 85

What are the roles of the frontal lobes and hippocampus in memory processing?

Answer 85

The frontal lobes and hippocampus are parts of the brain network dedicated to explicit memory formation. Many brain regions send information to the frontal lobes for processing. The hippocampus, with the help of surrounding areas of cortex, registers and temporarily holds elements of explicit memories before moving them to other brain regions for long-term storage. The neural storage of long-term memories is called memory consolidation.

Question 86

What roles do the cerebellum and basal ganglia play in memory processing?

Answer 86

The cerebellum and basal ganglia are parts of the brain network dedicated to implicit memory formation. The cerebellum is important for storing classically conditioned memories. The basal ganglia are involved in motor movement and help form procedural memories for skills. Many reactions and skills learned during our first three years continue into our adult lives, but we cannot consciously remember learning these associations and skills, a phenomenon psychologists call “infantile amnesia.”

Question 87

How do emotions affect our memory processing?

Answer 87

Emotional arousal causes an outpouring of stress hormones, which lead to activity in the brain’s memory-forming areas. Significantly stressful events can trigger very clear flashbulb memories.

Question 88

How do changes at the synapse level affect our memory processing?

Answer 88

Long-term potentiation (LTP) appears to be the neural basis of learning. In LTP, neurons become more efficient at releasing and sensing the presence of neurotransmitters, and more connections develop between neurons.

Question 89

How do external cues, internal emotions, and order of appearance influence memory retrieval?

Answer 89

External cues activate associations that help us retrieve memories; this process may occur without our awareness, as it does in priming. The encoding specificity principle is the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it. Returning to the same physical context or emotional state (mood congruency) in which we formed a memory can help us retrieve it. The serial position effect accounts for our tendency to recall best the last items (which may still be in working memory) and the first items (which we’ve spent more time rehearsing) in a list.

Question 90

define anterograde amnesia

Answer 90

an inability to form new memories

Question 91

define retrograde amnesia

Answer 91

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

Question 92

can people with anterograde amnesia be classically conditioned?

Answer 92

yes
(can learn the way to the bathroom, find waldo quickly in wheres waldo even if they dont remember seeing it before and learn comple job skills)

Question 93

people with anterograde amnesia cant form _____ memories but can form ____ memories

Answer 93

explicit

implicit

Question 94

the course of ____ is initially rapid, then levels off with time

Answer 94

forgetting

Question 95

define proactive interference

Answer 95

the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Question 96

define retroactive interference

Answer 96

the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Question 97

Sigmund Freud proposed that we ____ painful or unacceptable memories to protect our self-concept and to minimize anxiety

Answer 97

repress

Question 98

define repression

Answer 98

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Question 99

What are three ways we forget, and how does each of these happen?

Answer 99

(1) Encoding failure: Unattended information never entered our memory system. (2) Storage decay: Information fades from our memory. (3) Retrieval failure: We cannot access stored information accurately, sometimes due to interference or motivated forgetting.

Question 100

define reconsolidation

Answer 100

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Question 101

define misinformation effect

Answer 101

when misleading information has corrupted one’s memory of an event

Question 102

Misinformation and imagination effects occur partly because visualizing something and actually perceiving it activate ____ brain areas

Answer 102

similar

Question 103

define source amnesia

Answer 103

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

Question 104

Define déjà vu

Answer 104

that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

Question 105

Imagine being a jury member in a trial for a parent accused of sexual abuse based on a recovered memory. What insights from memory research should you offer the jury?

Answer 105

it will be important to remember the key points agreed upon by most researchers and professional associations: Sexual abuse, injustice, forgetting, and memory construction all happen; recovered memories are common; memories from before age 3 are unreliable; memories claimed to be recovered through hypnosis or drug influence are especially unreliable; and memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting.

Question 106

What—given the commonality of source amnesia—might life be like if we remembered all our waking experiences and all our dreams?

Answer 106

Real experiences would be confused with those we dreamed. When meeting someone, we might therefore be unsure whether we were reacting to something they previously did or to something we dreamed they did.

Question 107

What are the recommended memory strategies?

Answer 107

Rehearse repeatedly to boost long-term recall. Schedule spaced (not crammed) study times. Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material. Make the material personally meaningful, with well-organized and vivid associations. Refresh your memory by returning to contexts and moods to activate retrieval cues. Use mnemonic devices. Minimize interference. Plan for a complete night’s sleep. Test yourself repeatedly—retrieval practice is a proven retention strategy.

Question 108

Why do we forget?

Answer 108

Anterograde amnesia is an inability to form new memories. Retrograde amnesia is an inability to retrieve old memories. Normal forgetting can happen because we have never encoded information (encoding failure); because the physical trace has decayed (storage decay); or because we cannot retrieve what we have encoded and stored (retrieval failure). Retrieval problems may result from proactive (forward-acting) interference, as prior learning interferes with recall of new information, or from retroactive (backward-acting) interference, as new learning disrupts recall of old information. Some believe that motivated forgetting occurs, but researchers have found little evidence of repression.

Question 109

How do misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence our memory construction?

Answer 109

In experiments demonstrating the misinformation effect, people have formed false memories, incorporating misleading details, after receiving wrong information after an event, or after repeatedly imagining and rehearsing something that never happened. When we reassemble a memory during retrieval, we may attribute it to the wrong source (source amnesia). Source amnesia may help explain déjà vu.

Question 110

How do we decide whether a memory is real or false?

Answer 110

False memories feel like real memories and can be persistent but are usually limited to the gist of the event.

Question 111

How reliable are young children’s eyewitness descriptions?

Answer 111

Children are susceptible to the misinformation effect, but if questioned in neutral words they understand, they can accurately recall events and people involved in them.

Question 112

Why are reports of repressed and recovered memories so hotly debated?

Answer 112

The debate (between memory researchers and some well-meaning therapists) focuses on whether most memories of early childhood abuse are repressed and can be recovered during therapy using “memory work” techniques using leading questions or hypnosis. Psychologists now agree that (1) sexual abuse happens; (2) injustice happens; (3) forgetting happens; (4) recovered memories are commonplace; (5) memories of things that happened before age 3 are unreliable; (6) memories “recovered” under hypnosis or the influence of drugs are especially unreliable; and (7) memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting.

Question 113

How can you use memory research findings to do better in this and other courses?

Answer 113

Memory research findings suggest the following strategies for improving memory: Study repeatedly, make material meaningful, activate retrieval cues, use mnemonic devices, minimize interference, sleep more, and test yourself to be sure you can retrieve, as well as recognize, material.