Ch.5 Classical, Operant, and Observational Learning Flashcards
What is Learning?
- A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs through experience
- May be conscious or unconscious
Behaviorism
- Theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of mental processes
- Emphasized general laws that guide behavior change
- Dominated Psychology for the 1st half of the century
Importance of animal research
Results are applicable to humans
Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning:
- Organism learns the association between two stimuli
Operant Conditioning:
- Organism learns the association between a behavior and a consequence
Observational Learning
- Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates another’s behavior
- Unlike conditioning, relies on mental processes
- Learner must pay attention, remember, and repeat the observed behavior
Terminology (NS, UCS, UCR, CS, CR)—be able to apply to examples
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): - Always elicits a reflex action (unconditioned response) when presented Food Blast of air in eye Electric shock Loud noise Etc.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): - A reflex response to an unconditioned stimulus; naturally occurring, automatic Salivation to food Eye blinks in response to air Flinching in reaction to shock Startle reaction to loud noise
Neutral Stimulus (NS): - A stimulus that does not elicit a response or reflex action by itself A bell A color A furry object A flash of light A beeping sound Etc.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS):
-The stimulus that was originally neutral (NS)
Becomes conditioned after it has been paired with the UCS repeatedly
Eventually elicits the response by itself (without being paired with the UCS)
Conditioned Response (CR):
- The learned response to the conditioned stimulus
It will be the same as the UCR, but elicited by the CS, not the UCS
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - The natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning
Unconditioned response (UCR) - The unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS) - A formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response
Conditioned response (CR) - The learned response to a conditioned stimulus
Acquisition
Acquisition - The initial learning of the stimulus-response link UCS produces a UCR (reflex) Neutral stimulus (NS) paired with a UCS After pairings, NS produces a CR Thus, the NS has become a CS
Contiguity
- Time between CS and UCS
The CS and UCS need to occur close together in time in order for an association to develop
If I snapped my fingers, and then punched you immediately, you would quickly learn what the snap means
If I snapped my fingers, and then 3 hours later punched you, you likely would not learn that association
Contingency
CS must precede the UCS
The CS needs to predict the UCS, or the association will not form
“The bell means I’m about to be fed”
“The light means I’m about to be shocked”
“The snap means I’m about to be punched”
If the UCS happened first, what would that tell you?
If you got shocked, and then a light flashed…
Would the light ever become a CS?
No!
Generalization vs. Discrimination
Generalization:
- Tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original CS to elicit a response
Example: Pavlov’s dogs salivating when they hear any bell that is rung
Discrimination:
- Process of learning to respond only to certain stimuli and not to others
Example: Pavlov’s dogs salivating only to a specific bell, and not to any others
Extinction
- CR is weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS
Pavlov rang the bell but did not present food, and the dogs stopped salivating
Extinction is not forgetting
It is learning that the CS no longer predicts the UCS
John B. Watson & Little Albert
- Identified three emotions that he believed represented inborn and natural unconditioned reflexes: fear, rage, and love
- Two stimuli could trigger the reflex of fear in infants:
A sudden loud noise and a sudden dropping motion
One of the most famous and controversial studies
in psychological history (“Little Albert”)
Phobias
- Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert White rat (CS) paired with loud noise (UCS)
Counterconditioning
- Associate CS with new, incompatible CR
CS paired with new UCS
Jones (1924): Peter and the Rabbit
Rabbit paired with food eliminated Peter’s fear
Taste Aversion Learning
Garcia & Koelling (1966)
Varied exposure to CS
Gave rats particular tastes (sweet water), sights (flash of light), or sounds
Later gave radiation/drugs (UCS) to induce vomiting (UCR)
Results:
Rats developed aversions to tastes, but not sights or sounds
Avoided flavor even when delay between CS and UCS was long
Operant Conditioning
- Helps to explain our voluntary behavior
Consequences of behavior affect the future probability of that behavior
Contiguity: Time between behavior & consequence
Contingency: Is behavior regularly followed by the consequence?
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Responses followed by a satisfying state of affairs will be more likely to occur again
Responses followed by an annoying state of affairs will be less likely to occur again
The greater the satisfaction or annoyance, the greater the strengthening or weakening of the S-R bond
Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Reinforcement:
Increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Punishment:
Decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future
Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment
Primary Reinforcers
- A stimulus that is inherently reinforcing for a species (biological necessities)
Innately satisfying
Examples:
Food, water, warmth, sex, air, etc.
Secondary Reinforcers
- A stimulus that has acquiredreinforcing value by beingassociated with a primaryreinforcer
Examples:
Money, grades, awards,frequent-flyer miles, praise,approval, smiles, etc.
Reinforcement Schedules- Continuous vs. Partial
- Continuous - every correct response is reinforced; good way to get a low frequency behavior to occur
Rat gets a food pellet every time he presses the bar
Dog gets praised and a treat every time he sits when told - Partial - only some correct responses are reinforced; good way to make a behavior resistant to extinction
Pigeon gets a food pellet every 5 times he pecks at a disk
Other influences on response : Amount of Reinforcement, Quality, +/- Contrast,
Amount of Reinforcement (Crespi, 1942)
Rats that received larger rewards ran faster than rats
that received smaller rewards
Leads to greater intensity and vigor, but not greater persistence
Quality of Reinforcement (Simmons, 1924)
Rats rewarded with bread and milk performed better than rats given sunflower seeds
Positive vs. negative contrast (Crespi, 1942)
Rats in 1 of 3 groups—1 pellet, 16 pellets, or 256 pellets
All changed to receive 16 pellets
Negative contrast group (256 to 16 pellets) performed worse than control group (16 pellet group), Positive contrast group (1 to 16 pellets) performed better than control group.
History of reinforcement influences responding on current conditions
Latent learning
- Reinforcement is not necessary for learning to occur. Learning can occur, but not be seen in behavior until incentive is provided
Incentive objects influence behavior only if they are experienced enough times so that a cognitive explanation is built
Social Learning Theory
- We learn social behavior by observing and imitating others and by being rewarded and punished
AKA “vicarious learning” and “modeling”
Bandura: Observational Learning; Bobo Doll
- Children were allowed to play in a room containing several toys, including a Bobo doll
Those who saw the adult punished were significantly less likely to imitate the aggressive behaviors
However, when given rewards for showing the experimenter what the adults did…
Virtually all children imitated the adults behavior in the film, including aggressive behavior
Bandura: Observational Learning: Attention, Retention, Reproduction
Attention
- We first have to attend to the model’s behavior
- We will observe and imitate models with whom we are in frequent contact
Retention
- We must incorporate what we saw into memory
- Rehearse the behavior, either actually or mentally
Reproduction
- String together the correct pattern of responses
- Rough approximations of observed behavior can be refined over time after feedback
