Ch. 9 Cognitive Consistency and Social Motivation Flashcards
1
Q
Cognitive consistency theory
A
- A change in behavior can motivate a change in attitude, especially when the behavior and attitude are inconsistent with one another
2
Q
Homeostatic theory
A
- Optimal state is one in which people’s thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors are consistent with one another
- The inconsistency between the behavior and attitude generates motivation
- Creates an uncomfortable tension that people are motivated to relieve
3
Q
Heider’s Balance Theory (1946)
A
- Relationships between people, objects, or both have a tendency to be balanced
- Relationships between people and objects may be positive or negative
- We exist in complex networks of people, but the most standard way to think of balance theory is with three parties (people or objects)
- Denise likes Jesse; Jesse likes Denise (balanced)
- BUT Jesse likes a house and Denise does not like it (created an imbalance)
- How could they resolve?
- Jesse may try to change Denise’s mind about house
- Jesse may decide he dislikes the house too
- Jesse could stop liking Denise
4
Q
Criticisms of Balance Theory
A
- Has little to say about how a person will resolve the imbalance
- Thus, the theory does a better job of describing a state of tension than it does predicting actual behavior
- Does not take into account the importance of the items that are out of balance
5
Q
Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory
A
- Stresses the idea that we attempt to maintain consistency of our beliefs, attitudes, and opinions with our overt behavior
- When consistency is maintained, no motivation is triggered
6
Q
Thoughts/Behaviors can be related in one of three ways:
A
- Consonant – Two thoughts/behaviors are consistent with each other
I don’t smoke because I know smoking is bad for my health - Irrelevant - Two thoughts/behaviors are not related to one another at all
I don’t smoke; I also don’t like the color green - Dissonant – Two thoughts /behaviors contradict (are inconsistent) with one another
7
Q
How to resolve dissonance?
A
- Change the thoughts
Smoking can’t be that bad; after all, cigarettes are not illegal - Change the behavior
Quit smoking - Add consonant cognitions
“Smoking relaxes me” or “by the time I get cancer, we’ll have a cure for it.” - Reduce dissonance without actually changing the dissonant thoughts/behaviors
- What will people do?
The easiest—probably add consonant cognitions
8
Q
Post-hoc justification of effort & Post-decisional dissonance
A
Post-hoc justification of effort
- If you put a lot of effort into something, you will value it more
- Fraternity/sorority initiation makes students value membership
- Post-decisional dissonance
- If you have to choose between two desirable options (cars), post-decision, you will value the one you chose more
Selectively expose yourself to information that reinforces your choice - Avoid all good information about the car you didn’t choose
- Public-private dissonance (induced compliance in book)
One publically behaves in a manner contrary to one’s privately held opinions
9
Q
Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959 (3 Steps)
A
- Step 1: Participants engage in an extremely boring task
Packing and unpacking spools and turning pegs in a pegboard - Step 2: Asked to convince people in the waiting room that the task would be interesting (lie), three conditions:
Some participants paid $20
Some participants paid $1
Some participants (control) didn’t have to do any convincing - Step 3: Participants asked to rate how interesting the task was
$20 group (-0.45) and control group (-0.05) – neutral/not interesting
$1 group more interesting (+1.35)
Scale was -5 to +5
10
Q
Self Perception Theory
A
- You look at your behavior and use it to form your attitude
I smoke, I must not think it’s that bad for my health! - Self-perception theory states that there need not be any dissonance
Participants in boring task study were just making inferences about behavior like they would about any other person
Oh…they didn’t get paid very much, they must have really liked the task!
11
Q
Social facilitation
A
- We talked about how individual effort may decrease in a group setting
Social loafing - However, the presence of others can also enhance performance under certain circumstances
Social facilitation - Both competitors and audience members can enhance performance
- Actually their presence promotes arousal and this arousal triggers our “dominant response”
- If we’re seasoned, we do well; If we’re a rookie, we do poorly
12
Q
Conformity
A
- A change in behavior or beliefs as a result of real or imagined pressure from others.
13
Q
Compliance
A
- Yielding to a direct request for certain behaviors or agreement to a particular point of view.
14
Q
Obedience
A
- A change in behavior or beliefs as a result of the commands of others in authority.
15
Q
Social Norm
A
- Expectations about what behavior, thoughts, or feelings are appropriate within a given group within a given context
- Conformity can be thought of as yielding to or “going along with” a perceived social norm
Is conformity a good thing or a bad thing? Why?
What are some social norms?
16
Q
Informational influence/conformity
A
- Accepting evidence provided by other people.
Motivated by desire to be correct
Leads to internalization
Sherif (1936) studies of autokinetic effect
17
Q
Normative influence/conformity
A
- Conformity based on a person’s desire to fulfill others’ expectations, often to gain acceptance.
- Motivated by wanting acceptance, avoiding disapproval or harsh judgment, etc.
No internalization necessary.
Asch (1955) line judging studies
18
Q
Group Size
A
- Usually need 3-4 people for conformity.
- Milgram’s “looking up at nothing” study
1 person looking up, 40% of passers-by looked up (conformed)
2-3 people looking up, 60-65% conformed
4 people looking up, 80% conformed! - Line study: if only one other person was present, no conformity
If two other people, 12.8% conformity
If three people, 33% conformity
19
Q
Unanimity
A
- With even one dissenter, conformity decreases.
Asch– If even one person dissented, conformity dropped to 5%.
20
Q
Group Member Status
A
- If group members are high status, more conformity.
- Jaywalking study – Decreased from 25% to 17% when a well-dressed non-jaywalker was present
Primarily affects normative influence
21
Q
Group Member Expertise
A
- Experts = more conformity.
Primarily affects informational influence
22
Q
Anonymity
A
- Private responses makes conformity less likely
Primarily affects normative influence
23
Q
Foot-in-the-door technique
A
- People who have agreed to a small request are more likely to comply later with a larger request
24
Q
Door-in-the-face technique
A
- After a person turns down a large request, people are more likely to comply when the requester offers a more reasonable request.
- Blood donor study (Cialdini & Ascani, 1976):
Donate blood for long-term commitment? Donate tomorrow?
50% agreed - Donate blood tomorrow?
32% agreed - Person perceives the smaller request as a concession made by the requester and feels the need to comply because of the norm of reciprocity
25
Q
Low-ball Technique
A
- People who agree to an initial request often maintain commitment when request increases.
- Car salesmen
26
Q
Reciprocation (norm of reciprocity)
A
- The expectation that people will help those who have helped them.
- Request with a gift 35% donate.
- Without a gift 18% donate.
27
Q
Scarcity
A
- Things you do not or cannot have become more valuable.
“Limited edition”
28
Q
Obedience
A
- A change in behavior or beliefs as a result of the commands of others in authority.
29
Q
What characteristics of the requester led to obedience?
A
- Strength – Status or prestige of the person giving commands.
Experimenter replaced by a clerk, 20% obeyed - Immediacy – More influential when close.
Experimenter called in by phone, only 21% obeyed - Number – More influential when more people giving command.
30
Q
What characteristics of the situation led to obedience?
A
- Emotional distance of the victim
Shock by remote and cant hear the learner, nearly 100% obedience.
Hold hand to shock plate, only 30% obeyed. - Institutional authority
Office in Bridgeport, CT instead of Yale, only 48% obeyed. - Presence of resisters
Two defiant teachers added, 90% of Ps left.
31
Q
Bystander Effect
A
- People fail to offer help to a victim when other people are present
- WHY?
- Large commitment—very real possibility of harm
- Ambiguity—is it really an emergency?
Pluralistic ignorance—if other people don’t seem to think it’s an emergency, why should I? You reference other people to see how you should behave - If it is an emergency, what do I do to help?
State of indecision - Diffusion of responsibility
Someone else will for sure help
