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Abnormal Child & Adolescent Psychology > CH2 Causes of Disorders > Flashcards

CH2 Causes of Disorders Flashcards

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0
Q

What are the three conditions necessary to establish causality?

A

Covariation, temporal precedence, no alternative causes for covariation.

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1
Q

What are the three features of scientific inquiry?

A

Scientists organize understanding by generating hypotheses; hypotheses are falsifiable; hypotheses are systematically evaluated with empirical data.

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2
Q

What are the types of longitudinal studies?

A

Prospective longitudinal study, retrospective longitudinal study, follow-back study

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3
Q

Prospective longitudinal study

A

Researchers measure hypothesized causal variable at time 1 and measure its expected outcome at time 2

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4
Q

Retrospective longitudinal study

A

Researchers examine individuals with known disorders and ask them (or their parents) to recall events that might have caused the disorder.

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5
Q

Follow-back-study

A

Researchers examine the case histories, school records, or medical records of individuals with known disorders to determine whether events in their past may have contributed to the emergence of the disorder.

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6
Q

Moderator variable

A

Affects the nature of the relationship between two other variables. E.g. the relationship between harsh discipline and child behavior problems is moderated by ethnicity (whites have increased risk but blacks don’t).

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7
Q

Mediator variable

A

May account for the relationship between two other variables. E.g. children’s perfectionism mediates the relationship between their parents’ use of control and their likelihood of developing depression.

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8
Q

Name two shortcomings of using a no-treatment control group.

A

Participants know they are not receiving treatment so differences with the experimental group might be due to the placebo effect. It is often unethical to withhold treatment from people with mental health problems.

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9
Q

Name four types of control groups for testing the effectiveness of a new treatment.

A

No-treatment control group; waitlist control group; attention-placebo control group; standard treatment control group.

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10
Q

What type of control group provides the most stringest test of a new form of therapy?

A

Standard treatment control group. The new treatment must show that it reduces symptoms and that its benefits match or exceed those offered by existing therapies.

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11
Q

Name five threats to internal validity that limit causal inferences in quasi-experimental designs.

A

Maturation, surrounding environment, repeated testing, selection biases, attrition

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12
Q

What does selection bias refer to? What might cause it?

A

Systematic differences between treatment and control groups that emerge when groups are not randomly assigned at the beginning of the study.

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13
Q

Single subject studies are sometimes called ____ because the same individual’s behavior is studied across time.

A

Time series studies

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14
Q

What is the chief limitation of the AB design?

A

It suffers from the same threats to internal validity as quasi-experimental research. Since there is no control group, clinicians cannot be sure that a change is attributable to the treatment.

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15
Q

To provide better evidence for a causal relationship than the AB design, many researchers use ____ also called ____ .

A

ABAB designs; reversal designs.

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16
Q

What is the chief limitation of the ABAB design?

A

It is sometimes unetheical to withdraw treatment.

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17
Q

Type of single subject design in which the therapist identifies multiple behavior problems and targets them one at a time.

A

Multiple-baseline design

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18
Q

What is the general limitation of all single subject designs?

A

Causal inferences are based on one client so the results may not be generalizable to other individuals. Hence, they lack external validity.

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19
Q

No gene direct behavior. However, genes can lead to certain _____ changes and _____ changes in our bodies that _____ us to act in certain ways.

A

Structural, functional, predispose

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20
Q

Behavioral geneticists study? What types of studies do they employ?

A

The relationship between genes and behavior; family studies, adoption studies, twin studies

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21
Q

What is behavioral concordance?

A

The correlation between twins for specific behavior similarity

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22
Q

Behavioral geneticists often divide environmental influences on behavior into two types:

A

Shared environmental factors (make siblings more alike) and nonshared environmental factors (help explan why siblings differ)

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23
Q

Molecular genetics

A

Studies the effects of genes on behavior at the molecular level, attempting to link the presence of specific alleles with certain diseases or disorders.

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24
Q

Variations in the genetic code

A

Alleles

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25
Q

Types of studies used by molecular geneticists:

A

Linkage studies and association studies

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26
Q

Study in which researchers search the entire genetic structure of an individual (genome scan), looking for associations between the presence of certain alleles and the existence of a specific disorder.

A

Linkage study

27
Q

Study in which researchers select a specific gene that they believe might play a role in a disorder then examine whether there is an association between a particular allele of this candidate gene and the disorder.

A

Association study

28
Q

Nearly all mental disorder are influencesd by ____ genes; there is almost never a one-to-one correspondence between the presence of a specific ____ and the emergence of a given disorder. Furthermore, genes never affect behavior _____ ; their influence on behavior is always influenced by _____ .

A

Multiple; allele; directly; environmental experiences

29
Q

Name three types of gene-environment interactions

A

Passive gene-environment correlation; evocative gene-environment correlation; active gene-environment correlation

30
Q

Passive gene-environment correlation

A

Parents determine both outr genotype and the quality of out early environmental experiences, such that genes and early experiences are correlated. E.g. very bright parents are more likely to have bright children and to provide enriched early environments.

31
Q

Evocative gene-environment correlatioin

A

A child’s phenotype evokes certain responses in others that generate environmental conditions that correlate with his genetype. E.g. a smart kid is identified as gifted and receives special attention.

32
Q

Active gene-environmental correlation

A

As children continue to develop, they actively seek out environmental experiences conducive to their genotype. Sometimes called “niche-picking.”

33
Q

Can be used to measure brain activity when participants perform cognitive tasks

A

Functional magnetic resonance imagine (fMRI)

34
Q

MRIs help us

A

Understand normal brain development and detect structural abnormalities in youths with mental disorders

35
Q

T/F neuroimaging studies of youths yield consistent results.

A

False. Children show enourmous variability in brain volumes and rates of development. Pathogies rarely have singles causes that can be traced to specific brain regions.

36
Q

Trace brain development in gestation

A

Neural tube formation (first month after conception), rapid cell death called aptosis (beginning of second trimester), myelination and increased synaptic connections (remainder of gestation)

37
Q

Rapid increase in synaptic connections continues from the second trimester to age 2, at which point ____ occurs and unecessary connections die off.

A

Synaptic pruning

38
Q

Primary responsibilities of each cortical lobe ____ .

A

Occipital - visual processing
Parietal - integrating visual, auditory, and tactile information
Frontal - executive functioning
Temporal - emotional expression and regulation

39
Q

The cortex is divides into four lobes that mature in the following order:

A

Occipital - early childhood
Parietal - 10 to 11
Frontal - 11 to 12
Temporal - 16

40
Q

Researchers believe that structural changes in the basal ganglia, especially the pruning that occurs during childhood and adolescence, might account for children’s :

A

increased motor functioning, attention, and emotional processing

41
Q

Brain areas that change during childhood and adolescence:

A

Cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, cerebellum

42
Q

The primary components of the limbic system are the:

A

amygdala and hippocampus

43
Q

The amygdala aids in our understanding and expression of ____ . The hippocampus plays are role in ____ .

A

emotions, especially negative feelings such as fear and rage; emotional processing, especially the formation of emotion-laden memories.

44
Q

A heavily myelinated brain structure that relays information across hemispheres:

A

corpus callosum

45
Q

Maturation of the _____ during adolescence might explain the increased physical gracefulness exhibited by older adolescents as well as a general increase in mental efficiency across development.

A

Cerebellum

46
Q

Developmental psychologists often refer to periods of development in which experience can greatly shape neural structure and functioning as _____ .

A

Developmentally sensitive periods

47
Q

The brain’s capacity to change its structure and/or functioning in response to environmental experiences

A

Plasticity

48
Q

Recently, neuroscientists have been able to show _____ , that is, the formation of new neural connections due to experience.

A

Synaptogenesis

49
Q

Gottesman (1963) developed the concept of _____ to demonstrate the way genes and environment interact to influence development; first our genotype sets un upperlimit on our potentials then the quality of our environment determines where, within this range, our actual abilities fall.

A

Reaction range

50
Q

The term behavior encompasses three important facets of children’s functioning:

A

Their thoughts, feelings, and actions

51
Q

Whereas _____ occurs when individuals associate two stimuli, _____ occurs when individuals associate a behavior with its consequence in the environment.

A

Classical conditioning; operant conditioning

52
Q

Whereas reinforcement ____ the probability of future behavior, punishment ____ the probability of future behavior. They can be qualified as positive, involving stimulus _____ or negative, involving stimulus _____ .

A

Increases, decreases; presentation, removal

53
Q

In Bandura’s experiments, social learning was especially likely when models were similar to children in ____ and _____ and when models were _____ reinforced for their actions.

A

Age; gender; reinforced

54
Q

Bowlby said that the parent-child attachment relationship serves three basic functions:

A

Protection, positive emotional experiences, regulation of negative emotions and behaviors

55
Q

Bowlby hypothesized that over time, the infant develops an _____ , or mental representation of his parent, that helps him cope with psychosocial stress. The infant learns to use this mental representation of his parent as a _____ from which to explore his surroundings and control his emotions and actions.

A

Internal working model; secure base

56
Q

Ainsworth’s _____ test (1978) identified three patterns of attachment in infants. Most children showed a _____ attachment relationship. Those with _____ attachment relationships show passivity and disinterest when reunited with mothers. Those with _____ attachment relationship alternated between seeking and resisting caregivers’ support.

A

strange situation; secure; insecure-avoidant; insecure-ambivalent

57
Q

Two important dimensions of parenting are _____ , the degree to which parents display warmth and acceptance and _____ , the degree to which parents set age-appropriate expectations, estalish rules, and supervise.

A

Parental responsiveness; parental demandingness

58
Q

What are Baumrind’s (1991) four parenting types based on degrees of responsiveness and demandingness?

A

Indulgent (high R, low D)
Authoritarian (low R, high D)
Uninvolved (low R, low D)
Authoritative (high R, high D)

59
Q

Overall, children of _____ parents displayed the best developmental outcomes while children of _____ parents showed the worst outcomes.

A

Authoritative; uninvolved

60
Q

Psychologists have also identified a third dimension of parenting, _____ , which is especially relavant to the development of children’s behavior problems, especially defiance and aggression.

A

Parental hostility/coercion

61
Q

Proximal risk factors of child psychopathology

A

Immediate causes that directly affect children’s well-being; genotype, biological structure and functioning, learning experiences, and familial context.

62
Q

Distal risk factors of child psychopathology

A

Social, cultural, and broader environmental influences on development that do not directly affect children’s functioning; SES

63
Q

Three ways that distal risk factors contribute to child psychopathology? Examples?

A
  1. Directly (lead paint)
  2. Proximal factors can mediate the distal risks (fighting over money increases parental hostility/coercion)
  3. Distal factors can moderate effect of proximal factors (the effects of parenting behavior on development depends on parents’ SES)
64
Q

According to Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) _____ theory, children’s development can be viewed as a hierarchy of four nested social systems:

A

bioecological systems; microsystem (genetic inheritance, roles, relationships); mesosystem (interactions b/w microsystems); exosystem (parent’s jobs, school board changes); macrosystem (media exposure, neighborhood quality)

65
Q

Describe each system in the Bioecological Systems Theory

A

Microsystem: child’s immediate surroundings
Mesosystem: relationships between microsystems
Exosystems: contextual factors that influence the child indirectly
Macrosystem: broad social-cultural factors

Abnormal Child & Adolescent Psychology (4 decks)

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