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Biology I > Ch. The Rest Of 6, 7, & 8 Test > Flashcards

Ch. The Rest Of 6, 7, & 8 Test Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the effect of enzyme concentration on the rate of enzyme action?

A

Low enzyme concentration= low rate of rxn

Increasing enzyme concentration= increasing rate of rxn

Adding enzyme= no increase rate of rxn

All substrates bind with enzymes

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2
Q

What is the effect of substrate concentration on the rate of enzyme action?

A

Increasing substrate concentration= increasing rate rxn

Adding more substrate= no increase rate of rxn

Max achieved rate when all enzymes bind with the substrate

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3
Q

What are the two types of enzyme inhibitors?

A

Competitive inhibitor

Non competitive inhibitor

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4
Q

What is the difference between competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors?

A

Competitive- binds to active site

Non competitive- does not bind to the active site

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5
Q

What are examples of inhibitors?

A

Toxins, poisons, pesticides, and antibiotics

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6
Q

What are the two processes involved in regulation of enzyme activity?

A

Allosteric regulation

Feedback inhibition

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7
Q

How does allosteric regulation work?

A

Activator stabilizes the active form of the enzyme

Inhibitor stabilizes the inactive form of the enzyme

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8
Q

What does allosteric regulation have?

A

Allosteric regulated enzymes

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9
Q

What are Allosteric regulated enzymes made from?

A

Polypeptide subunits

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10
Q

What two forms does Allosteric regulated enzymes have?

A

Active

Inactive

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11
Q

How does feedback inhibition work?

A

End product of a metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway

Prevents a cell from wasting chemical resources by synthesizing more product than is needed

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12
Q

What is metabolism?

A

Totality of an organisms chemical rxns

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13
Q

What are the two types of metabolism?

A

Anabolism

Catabolism

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14
Q

A—>B—>C—>D
What are the reactants?
What are the intermediate products?
What is the end product?

A

ABC

BC

D

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15
Q

Each step in a rxn is catabolized by what?

A

Catalyst

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16
Q

What are the two metabolic pathways?

A

Catabolic

Anabolic

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17
Q

What is the difference between a catabolic and anabolic pathway?

A

Catabolic- release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds

Anabolic- consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones

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18
Q

Why do we eat foods? (Carbs, proteins, fats and lipids)

A

Sources of substances for biosynthesis of cellular components

Sources of ATP (uses transport of substances, mechanical works, endergonic processes)

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19
Q

What are the end products of the digestion of carbs, proteins, fats and lipids?

A

Carbs- sugars
Proteins- amino acids
Lipids- fatty acids and glycerol

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20
Q

What is cellular respiration?

A

Break down of glucose in the presence of oxygen to carbon dioxide and water releasing ATP

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21
Q

Where does cellular respiration occur in a eukaryotic cell?

A

Mitochondria

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22
Q

Where does cellular respiration occur in prokaryotic cells?

A

Cytoplasm

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23
Q

Effect of substrate concentration.

A

Enzyme concentration- limiting (constant)=3

Substrate concentration- variable (x-axis)

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24
Q

Effect of enzyme concentration.

A

Enzyme concentration- variable (x-axis)

Substrate concentration- limiting (constant)=3

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25
Q

Metabolic pathways.

A

Series of linked rxns

Begin with a specific reactant and produce an end product

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26
Q

For competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors, does a rxn occur?

A

No

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27
Q

Another name for rxn?

A

Catalysis

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28
Q

_____ product feeds back to _____ reactant to make a rxn active again.

A

Final

Initial

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29
Q

In feedback inhibition the enzyme is the _____.

A

Final product

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30
Q

Anabolism.

A

Endergonic (ATP)

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31
Q

Catabolism.

A

Exergonic ( no ATP, releases ATP)

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32
Q

In cellular respiration, the oxygen in water comes from _____.

A

The air we breathe

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33
Q

What is the difference between autotrophs and heterotrophs?

A

Autotrophs- energy from CO2
Heterotrophs- energy form organic compounds

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34
Q

What is the source of energy for autotrophs?

A

Sunlight

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35
Q

Redox reaction is a reaction that involves transfer of electrons between _____. In _____, a substance loses electrons, or is oxidized. In _____, a substance gains electron, or is reduced.

A

Reactants
Oxidation
Reduction

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36
Q

C6H12O6 + 6O2 —> 6CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP

what are reactants?
What is reducing agent?
What is oxidizing agent?
What is oxidized?
What is reduced?

A

Glucose and oxygen
Water
Oxygen
Water
Carbon dioxide

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37
Q

What are the two electron carriers?

A

NAD and FAD

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38
Q

What is NAD and FADs function?

A

Electron carriers
Can be reversible oxidized and reduced

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39
Q

What are the oxidized and reduced forms of nicotinamide?

A

Oxidized: NAD+2H, FAD+2H
Reduced: NADH+H, FADH+H

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40
Q

What are the three types of phosphorylation?

A

Substrate level
Oxidative
Photo phosphorylation

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41
Q

What is phosphorylation?

A

Add a phosphate group to ADP to make ATP

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42
Q

Substrate level:
Source of phosphate?
Location in eukaryotes?
Location in prokaryotes?

A

Organic
Cytosol/matrix
Cytosol

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43
Q

Oxidative level:
Source of phosphate?
Location in eukaryotes?
Location in prokaryotes?

A

Inorganic Pi
Cristae
Cell membrane

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44
Q

Photophosphorylation:
Source of phosphate?
Location in eukaryotes?
Location in prokaryotes?

A

Inorganic Pi
Thylakoids in chloroplasts
Thylakoids in cell membrane

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45
Q

Organic compound + ADP —> pyruvate + ATP
What is the donor of phosphate to make ATP from ADP?

A

Organic compound

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46
Q

In oxidative level of phosphorylation and photophosphoylation, what is the donor of phosphate? What energy is used for oxidative level phosphorylation and what energy is used for photophosphorylation?

A

Pi
Light energy from the sun

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47
Q

Parts of mitochondria and where are they?

A

Matrix- inside Cristae
Cristae- wavy
Outer membrane- right outside mitochondria
Intermembrane space- between Cristae and outer membrane

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48
Q

What are the processes used by microbes to generate ATP?

A

Cellular respiration
Fermentation

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49
Q

What process requires oxygen?

A

Aerobic

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50
Q

What is the function of oxygen?

A

Serves as a final electron acceptor

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51
Q

Final electron acceptor of aerobic respiration?

A

Oxygen

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52
Q

Final electron acceptor of anaerobic respiration?

A

Anything other than oxygen

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53
Q

Final electron acceptor of fermentation?

A

Anything other than oxygen

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54
Q

What process generates the most ATP form one molecule of glucose?

A

Aerobic

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55
Q

What process generates the least ATP from one molecule of glucose?

A

Fermentation

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56
Q

What are the four stages of cellular respiration of glucose?

A

Glycolysis
Pyruvate oxidation
Citric acid cycle
Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis

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57
Q

What is another name for glycolysis?

A

EMP pathway

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58
Q

What part of the cell does glycolysis occur in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

Both in cytosol

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59
Q

How many steps is glycolysis?

A

10

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60
Q

What happens during energy investment stage of glycolysis?

A

2 ATP used?

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61
Q

What happens in conserving in glycolysis?

A

Makes two private acids

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62
Q

After completion of glycolysis, what happens to glucose?

A

It is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate

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63
Q

After completion of glycolysis, how many net ATP are produced from on molecule of glucose? By what type of phosphorylation?

A

2
Substrate level

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64
Q

After completion of glycolysis, how many NADH are produced from one molecule of glucose?

A

2

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65
Q

What does competitive bind to?

A

Active site

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66
Q

What does noncompetitive bind to?

A

Enzyme

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67
Q

What will sugar form to?

A

CO2

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68
Q

What is NAD derived from?

A

Niacin

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69
Q

What is FAD derived from?

A

Riboflavin

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70
Q

What kind of energy do NADH and FADH have?

A

Potential

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71
Q

What is substrate and oxidative level in?

A

Animals, plants, bacteria, archaea

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72
Q

What is photophosphoylation in?

A

Organisms that have chlorophyll

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73
Q

What is Pi?

A

Inorganic phosphate

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74
Q

What are the types of cellular respiration?

A

Aerobic and anaerobic

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75
Q

What is the output of glucose?

A

2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH

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76
Q

What is the total ATP produced in glycolysis?

A

4

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77
Q

What is the net ATP produced in glycolysis?

A

2

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78
Q

What is the final product of glycolysis?

A

Pyruvate

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79
Q

What Happens to pyruvuc acid in pyruvate oxidation?

A

It is converted to acetyl CoA

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80
Q

How many CO2 are produced from two molecules of pyruvic acid?

A

2

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81
Q

How many NADH are produced from two molecules of pyruvic acid?

A

2

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82
Q

What is another name for citric acid cycle?

A

Krebs cycle, TCA

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83
Q

What part of prokaryotic cell does citric acid cycle occur?

A

Cytosol

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84
Q

What part of eukaryotic cell does TCA occur?

A

Matrix of mitochondria

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85
Q

What is the substance that enters the Krebs cycle?

A

Acetyl CoA

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86
Q

How many steps is the citric acid cycle?

A

8

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87
Q

After completion of TCA, for two molecules of acetyl CoA, how many ATP are produced and what is the type of phosphorylation?

A

2
Substrate level

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88
Q

After completion of Krebs cycle, for two molecules of acetyl CoA, how many NADH are produced?

A

6

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89
Q

After completion of citric acid cycle, for two molecules of acetyl CoA, how many FADH are produced?

A

2

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90
Q

After completion of TCA, for two molecules of acetyl CoA, how many CO2 are produced?

A

4

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91
Q

What composes the electron transport system?

A

4 protein complexes embedded in the membrane

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92
Q

What is the main function of the ETS?

A

Create a proton motive force (PMF)

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93
Q

What complex in the ETS accepts electrons carried by NADH?

A

1

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94
Q

What complex in the ETS accepts electrons carried by FADH?

A

2

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95
Q

As the electrons are passed from one acceptor to another in the ETS, what is released?

A

Energy

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96
Q

What is the function of the energy that is released as the electrons move down the chain?

A

Pump protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space

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97
Q

What happens to the H+ concentration outside the membrane and inside the membrane?

A

Out- more protons
In- less protons

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98
Q

What is the proton motive force?

A

Proton gradient

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99
Q

What is the final electron acceptor in ETS?

A

Oxygen

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100
Q

What is chemiosmosis?

A

The process of ions moving through a membrane from high to low concentration based on concentration and charge

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101
Q

What substance is formed when H+ go back inside the membrane through ATP synthase?

A

ATP

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102
Q

What is the type of phosphorylation that occurs in the ETS?

A

Oxidative

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103
Q

In ETS, for one NADH, how many ATPs are formed?

A

3

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104
Q

In ETS, for one FADH, how many ATPs are formed?

A

2

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105
Q

Why are there more ATP generated per molecule of NADH than per molecule of FADH?

A

NADH has more protons than FADH

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106
Q

How many ATP are produced by substrate level phosphorylation?

A

2

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107
Q

How many ATP are produced by oxidative phosphorylation?

A

6

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108
Q

Which generates more ATP? Oxidative phosphorylation or substrate level phosphorylation?

A

Oxidative

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109
Q

How many total ATP are generated?

A

40

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110
Q

How many net ATP are generated?

A

38

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111
Q

What stage generates the most NADH?

A

Oxidative phosphorylation

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112
Q

What enzymes regulate cellular respiration?

A

Phosphofructokinase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase

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113
Q

Name the inhibitors of phosphofructokinase?

A

ATP and citrate

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114
Q

Name the activator of phosphofructokinase?

A

ATP

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115
Q

Name the inhibitor of the pyruvate dehydrogenase?

A

NADH

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116
Q

What are the two processes that oxidize glucose in the absence of oxygen?

A

Anaerobic and fermentation

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117
Q

What is anaerobic?

A

Inorganic molecules as final electron acceptor ( prokaryotes)

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118
Q

What is fermentation?

A

Inorganic molecules as final electron acceptor

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119
Q

What are methanogens?

A

Anaerobes, methane producers

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120
Q

What do methanogens do?

A

reduce CO2 to methane

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121
Q

Where are methanogens found?

A

Sewage, swamps, marine sediments, and rice patties

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122
Q

What is the carbon source and final electron acceptor of methanogens?

A

CO2

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123
Q

What are sulfur and sulfate reducing bacteria?

A

Anaerobes

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124
Q

What do sulfur and sulfate reducing bacteria do?

A

Produce hydrogen sulfate

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125
Q

What do sulfur and sulfate reducing bacteria do?

A

Produce hydrogen sulfate

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126
Q

Where do sulfur and sulfate reducing bacteria live?

A

Mud and organic materials

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127
Q

What are the carbon sources and final electron acceptor of sulfur and sulfate reducing bacteria?

A

Sulfate

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128
Q

Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur in the mitochondria?

A

Innermembrane/cristae

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129
Q

High energy electron carriers that donate electrons?

A

NADH and FADH

130
Q

What kind of phosphorylation do plants perform?

A

Photophosphorylation

131
Q

Does glycolysis require oxygen?

A

No

132
Q

What are the two steps of pyruvate oxidation?

A

Decarbonize
Addition of CoA

133
Q

Wheee does pyruvate oxidation occur in eukaryote?

A

Matrix of the mitochondria

134
Q

Where does pyruvate oxidation occur in prokaryotes?

A

Cytoplasm

135
Q

What part of glycolysis has the most production of ATP, NADH, and FADH?

A

Krebs cycle

136
Q

Where does ETS happen in eukaryotes?

A

Cristae/ innermembrane

137
Q

Where does ETS happen in prokaryotes?

A

Cell/plasma membrane

138
Q

What is PMF?

A

Difference of proton concentration

139
Q

Flow of electrons

A

Complex 1 NADH complex 2 FADH—> Q—> COMPLEX 3–> C —>complex 4

140
Q

1 NADH=

A

3 ATP

141
Q

1 FADH=

A

2 ATP

142
Q

How many ATP do eukaryotes produce?

A

36

143
Q

How many ATP do prokaryotes produced?

A

38

144
Q

How many ATP does oxidative phosphorylation produce?

A

34

145
Q

How many ATP does standard level phosphorylation produce?

A

4

146
Q

What is fermentation?

A

Anaerobic process generating ATP using organic molecules as final electron acceptors

147
Q

Two examples of fermentation?

A

Ethanol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation

148
Q

Where does ethanol fermentation occur?

A

Yeast

149
Q

What does ethanol fermentation produce?

A

CO2, ethanol, NAD

150
Q

Where does lactic acid fermentation occur?

A

In animal cells (especially muscles)

151
Q

What does lactic acid fermentation produce?

A

Electrons transferred from NADH to private to produce lactic acid

152
Q

What is the importance of fermentation?

A

To get back NAD

153
Q

Alcoholic fermentation

2CH3CHO + 2NADH —> 2CH3CH2OH + 2NAD
(Acetylaldehyde) (ethanol)

What is reduced?
What is oxidized?
What is oxidizing agent?
What is reducing agent?

A

Acetylaldehyde
NADH
Acetylaldehyde
NADH

154
Q

Lactic acid fermentation

2CH3COCOOH + 2NADH —> 2CH3CHOHCOOH + 2NAD

(Pyruvic acid) (lactic acid)

What is reduced?
What is oxidized?
What is oxidizing agent?
What is reducing agent?

A

Pyruvic acid
NADH
Pyruvic acid
NADH

155
Q

What causes an oxygen depth to develop?

A

When the bodies demand for oxygen exceeds the max amount of

156
Q

Can proteins and fats be used as sources of ATP?

A

Yes

157
Q

What are the products of protein digestion?

A

Amino acids

158
Q

Amino acids enter what stage of cellular respiration?

A

Krebs cycle

159
Q

What are the products of fat digestion?

A

Glycerol and fatty acids

160
Q

Glycerol enters what stage of cellular respiration?

A

Glycolysis

161
Q

Fatty acids enter what stage of cellular respiration?

A

TCA cycle

162
Q

Photosynthesis is a process that converts _____ energy into _____ energy. The energy is stored in the bonds of glucose.

A

Light
Chemical

163
Q

Photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O —> C6H12O6 + 6O2

What are reactants?
What is reducing agent?
What is oxidizing agent?
What is oxidized?
What is reduced?

A

CO2 and H2O
CO2
Water
CO2
Water

164
Q

What cells in the leaves contain the chloroplasts?

A

Mesophyll cells

165
Q

What is stomata?

A

Epidermal cells

166
Q

What cells compose the stomata?

A

Guard cells

167
Q

What is stoma?

A

Tiny pore surrounded by guard cells

168
Q

Why are there more stomata on the underside of the leaf?

A

To conserve water

169
Q

What are the parts of a chloroplast? Describe each.

A

Thylakoid- contains chlorophyll
Granum- stacks of thylakoids
Stroma- space in between

170
Q

What is the green pigment called in chloroplasts?

A

Chlorophyll

171
Q

What do chlorophyll a and b reflect?

A

Green

172
Q

Caretenoids: Beta carotene, xanthophyll reflect what colors?

A

Red, orange, and yellow

173
Q

What pigment is primarily responsible for photosynthesis?

A

Chlorophyll a

174
Q

What are the accessory pigments?

A

Caretenoids and chlorophyll b

175
Q

Why are chloroplasts colored green?

A

Because they absorb every color but green. They reflect green.

176
Q

What is the stage of aerobic respiration that makes the most CO2?

A

TCA cycle

177
Q

What is the purpose of ETS in aerobic respiration?

A

To create a proton gradient

178
Q

What is the proton motive force in the mitochondria?

A

The concentration of protons is higher in the intermembrane than the matrix

179
Q

Chemiosmosis in the mitochondria is the diffusion of _____ through ATP synthase from _____.

A

Protons
Intermembrane to matrix

180
Q

What is the light energy used for photosynthesis?

A

Sunlight

181
Q

Visible light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum. What is its color determined by?

A

Wavelength

182
Q

What is the relationship between wavelength and amount of energy?

A

Increasing wavelength=decreasing energy

Inversely proportional to

183
Q

Photosystems are reaction-center complexes surrounded by ______ and are located in the _____.

A

Light-harvesting complexes
Thylakoid membrane

184
Q

What are light-harvesting complexes?

A

Pigment molecules bound to proteins that funnel the energy of photons to the reaction center

185
Q

What is a primary electron acceptor?

A

In the reaction center accepts an excited electron from chlorophyll a

186
Q

What are the two types of photosystems?

A

Photosystem 1
Photosystem 2

187
Q

PS I best absorbs light with what wavelength?

A

680 nm

188
Q

PS II best absorbs light with what wavelength?

A

700 nm

189
Q

What are the two major stages of photosynthesis?

A

Light rxns
Dark rxns

190
Q

What happens with lights rxns?

A

Photo part

191
Q

What happens with dark rxns?

A

Synthesis part

192
Q

What happens in photo part?

A

Two photophosphorylation: linear and cyclic

193
Q

What is synthesis part also called?

A

Calvin cycle

194
Q

What rxn is light dependent?

A

Light rxns

195
Q

What rxn is light independent?

A

Dark rxns

196
Q

Where do light runs take place?

A

Thylakoids

197
Q

What are the inputs and outputs of light rxns?

A

In- H2O, NADP, ADP, Pi

Out- O2, ATP, NADPH

198
Q

In light rxns, what is solar energy transformed into?

A

Chemical energy (ATP and NADH)

199
Q

What are the two pathways of photophosphorylation?

A

Linear- noncyclic
Non linear- cyclic

200
Q

Where do dark rxns take place?

A

Stroma

201
Q

What are the inputs and outputs of dark rxns?

A

In- CO2, ATP, NADPH

Out- sugar

202
Q

What are the photosystems involved in linear phosphorylation?

A

Photosystems 1 & 2

203
Q

What photo system functions first?

A

Photosystem 2

204
Q

The lost electrons in P680 are replaced by electrons coming from where?

A

Water

205
Q

What gas is released when water is hydrolized?

A

Hydrogen and oxygen

206
Q

What gas is released when water is hydrolized?

A

Hydrogen and oxygen

207
Q

What happens to the electron coming from PS 2?

A

Replaced by splitting a water molecule

208
Q

What replaces the lost electrons coming from PS 1?

A

Transferred to NADP to reduce NADPH

209
Q

What are the end products of linear phosphorylation?

A

ATP, NADPH and oxygen

210
Q

What are the photosystems involved in cyclic phosphorylation?

A

PS 1

211
Q

When light strikes PS 1 what happens to the excited electron?

A

Passed down the ETS

212
Q

What replaces the lost electron in PS 1?

A

Electrons that come from the ETS

213
Q

What are the end products of cyclic photophosphorylation?

A

ATP

214
Q

Is water hydrolyzed and O2 released in the process?

A

Yes

215
Q

In the light rxn of photosynthesis, 8 photons yield _____ ATP and _____ NADPH.

A

2
2

216
Q

The ETS in the chloroplast is in the _____.

A

Thylakoid membrane

217
Q

Describe the transport of electrons in the electron transport system in the chloroplast.

A

Electrons are transported through a series of protein complexes embedded in the thylakoid membranes, moving from photosystem 2 and photosystem 1.

218
Q

Where does the Calvin cycle take place in the chloroplasts?

A

Stroma

219
Q

What does the Calvin cycle produce?

A

Glucose, NADP, ADP

220
Q

What are the three steps ( phases) of the Calvin cycle?

A

Fixation of CO2

Reduction of CO2

Regeneration of CO2 acceptor

221
Q

What enzyme is involved in step 1?

A

RuBisCO

222
Q

What is the substrate of RubisCO?

A

RuBP

223
Q

What is the first intermediate product of the Calvin cycle?

A

12 PGA

224
Q

What happens in step 2?

A

12 PGA is reduced by NADPH to form 12 PGAL

225
Q

How many PGAL are needed to make one molecule of glucose?

A

2

226
Q

How many PGAL are reassembled to make 5 molecules of RuBP?

A

25

227
Q

How many ATP and NADPH are required to make one molecule of glucose?

A

8 ATP and 12 NADPH

228
Q

In the light rxn of photosynthesis, 8 photons yield 3 ATP and 2 NADPH. In the Calvin cycle, 18 ATP and 12 NADPH are required to make one molecule of glucose. How many photons then were absorbed to make one molecule of glucose?

A

72 photons

229
Q

Recall the events of the light rxns and the dark rxns.

A

Light rxns capture light energy to produce ATP and NADPH, which are then used in the dark rxns to fix carbon dioxide into glucose

230
Q

What are produced in photosynthesis in the chloroplasts that are used for cellular respiration in the mitochondrion?

A

Glucose and O2

231
Q

What are produced in cellular respiration in the mitochondrion that are used for photosynthesis in the chloroplasts?

A

Water and CO2

232
Q

If the concentration of CO2 in the cell is ______, RubisCO would catalyze the reaction of RuBP with CO2.

A

High

233
Q

To conserve water during hot and arid conditions, stomata close. What is the consequence if stomata are closed?

A

CO2 cannot enter the leaves and oxygen cannot exit.

234
Q

What is photorespiration?

A

Alternate pathway for production of G3P by RuBisCO.

235
Q

If the concentration of CO2 in the cell is _____, RuBisCO would catalyze the reaction of RuBP with oxygen.

A

Low

236
Q

Why is photorespiration a wasteful process?

A

It consumes O2 to make CO2, not making ATP or sugar.

237
Q

What are the pathways of photosynthesis?

A

C3
C4
CAM

238
Q

What kind of cell does the Calvin cycle occur in, in C3 photosynthesis?

A

Mesophyll

239
Q

In C3 photosynthesis, the end result of CO2 fixation is what kind of molecule?

A

G3P (PGA)

240
Q

In C4 photosynthesis, what type of cell does CO2 fixation by PEP Carboxylase occur in?

A

Mesophyll

241
Q

In C4 photosynthesis for CO2 fixation by PEP Carboxylase, what is the enzyme and substrate involved in the initial fixation of CO2?

A

PEP Carboxylase

242
Q

In C4 photosynthesis in CO2 fixation by PEP Carboxylase, the four carbon compounds are exported to _____, where they release CO2 that is then used in the Calvin Cycle.

A

Bundle sheath cells

243
Q

In C4 photosynthesis in CO2 fixation by RuBisCO (Calvin Cycle), where does it take place?

A

Bundle sheath cells

244
Q

CAM plants open their stomata at _____, incorporating CO2 into organic acids. Stomata close during the _____, and CO2 is released from organic acids and used in the Calvin Cycle.

A

Night
Day

245
Q

In CO2 fixation in CAM plants, where does it take place?

A

Mesophyll cells

246
Q

Does C4 or CAM exhibit spatial separation of steps?

A

C4

247
Q

Does C4 or CAM exhibit temporal separation of steps?

A

CAM

248
Q

What are the similarities and differences of the three pathways of photosynthesis?

A

C3: 3 carbon, RuBisCO
C4: 4 carbon, PEP Carboxylase
CAM: 4 carbon, PEP Carboxylase

249
Q

What pathway is more efficient in hot and dry environments with high light intensity?

A

CAM

250
Q

What pathway is more efficient in cool, moist environments with moderate light intensity?

A

C3

251
Q

What pathway in more efficient in warm, dry environments with high light intensity?

A

C4

252
Q

What is one characteristic that best distinguishes living things from non living things?

A

The ability to reproduce

253
Q

What is the continuity of life based on?

A

Reproduction or cell division

254
Q

What are the three functions of cell division?

A

Reproduction

Growth and development

Tissue renewal

255
Q

What is a chromatin?

A

A tangled mass of threadlike DNA in a non dividing cell

256
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

Condensed DNA molecules observed in dividing cells

257
Q

How many DNA molecules are there in a single copy chromosome?

A

1

258
Q

When the single copy chromosome duplicates, how many chromatids are there?

A

2

259
Q

When a single copy chromosome duplicates, what joins the chromatids together?

A

Centromere

260
Q

When a single copy chromosome duplicates, how many DNA molecules are there in the double copy chromosome?

A

2

261
Q

If the DNA content of the single copy chromosome is x, what is the DNA content of the double copy chromosome?

A

2 pg, x= 2 chromosomes so 4 chromatids if duplicate, 4 pg

262
Q

What are kinetochores?

A

A disc shaped protein structure associated with duplicated chromatids that attach chromosomes to spindle microtubules during cell division

263
Q

What are kinetochore microtubules?

A

Protein complexes that attach chromosomes to microtubules of the mitotic spindle

264
Q

What are somatic cells?

A

Non reproductive
2 chromosomes (2n, diploid)

265
Q

What are gamete cells?

A

Half as many chromosomes as somatic cells (haploid, n)

266
Q

How many sets of chromosomes are there in a somatic cell?

A

2

267
Q

How many sets of chromosomes are there in a gamete cell?

A

1

268
Q

What are two types of gametes in humans?

A

Sperm
Egg

269
Q

What is the female gamete?

A

Egg

270
Q

What is the male gamete?

A

Sperm

271
Q

What is the cell cycle?

A

Orderly set of stages that occur between the time a cell divides and the time the resulting daughter cells divide

272
Q

What are the two major stages of the cell cycle?

A

Interphase

Mitotic phase

273
Q

What are the three stages of interphase?

A

G1

S

G2

274
Q

What are the two stages of mitotic phase?

A

Mitosis

Cytokinesis

275
Q

How many ATP are made from fermentation from 40?

A

80

276
Q

Photosystems work to make ATP and electrons don’t return and are reduced from what?

A

NADP to NADPH

277
Q

P680=?

A

Ps2

278
Q

RuBisCO at low CO2 _____.

A

Has a low affinity for CO2

279
Q

PEP Carboxylase at low CO2 _____.

A

Has a high affinity for CO2

280
Q

How many chromosomes does a human somatic cell have?

A

46

281
Q

S S

A

Two single (x)

282
Q

X X

A

Two double (2x)

283
Q

What is the longest stage in the cell cycle?

A

Interphase

284
Q

In what stage of interphase are cellular components duplicated except DNA?

A

G1

285
Q

In what stage of interphase is DNA doubled?

A

S

286
Q

In what stage of interphase do cells prepare for mitosis and double check the duplicated DNA for errors and makes repairs if needed?

A

G2

287
Q

In what stage of interphase are centrosomes duplicated?

A

S

288
Q

Mitosis

A

Division of the nucleus

289
Q

Cytokinesis

A

Division of the cytoplasm

290
Q

In mitosis, daughter cells yield _____ number of chromosomes with that of the parent.

A

Same

291
Q

What type of cell divides by mitosis?

A

Somatic

292
Q

What are the phases of mitosis?

A

Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telephase

293
Q

Describe the events in prophase.

A

Chromosomes condense and appear as two sister chromatids

Spindle fiber begins to form

Nuclear envelope breaks down

Centrioles move to opposite poles

294
Q

Describe the events in prometaphase.

A

Chromosomes are attached to microtubules

Chromosomes begin to move to center of the cell- congression

295
Q

Describe the events in metaphase.

A

Longest phase

Chromosomes line up

Chromosomes attached to opposite poles and are under tension

296
Q

Describe the events in anaphase.

A

Shortest phase

Cohesion proteins are cleaved

Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of

297
Q

Describe the events in telephase.

A

Two daughter nuclei are formed

Nuclear membranes form, spindle fiber disappears, cytokinesis occurs

Chromosomes become less condensed

Mitosis is complete

298
Q

Summary of mitosis

A

P: pair up

M: meet in the middle

A: apart they go

T: two new cells

299
Q

Describe cytokinesis in animals.

A

Cleavage furrow

Cell plate inward

300
Q

Describe cytokinesis in plants.

A

Cell plate outward

301
Q

How do prokaryotes reproduce?

A

Binary fission

302
Q

Binary fission

A

Cell splits into two duplicates in first stage

No cleavage furrow, just septum pinching

303
Q

What are they checkpoints in the cell cycle?

A

G1
G2
M

304
Q

G1 and G2 checkpoints are in what stage of the cell cycle?

A

Interphase

305
Q

M phase checkpoint is in what stage of the cell cycle?

A

Metaphase

306
Q

What are the functions of G1 checkpoint?

A

Decides if cell should divide

Makes sure cell is large enough to divide

Enough nutrients for daughter cells

307
Q

What are the functions of the G2 checkpoint?

A

Makes sure DNA replication in the S phase has been completed

Check to see if DNA is repaired

Triggers start of mitosis

308
Q

What are the functions of the M checkpoint?

A

Occurs during metaphase

Checks to see if spindle fibers have formed and attached correctly to chromosomes

309
Q

What are the two proteins involved in the control of the cell cycle?

A

Cycling

Cyclin dependent kinases (Cdks)

310
Q

At what stage in the cell cycle are Cdks activity and cycling concentration high?

A

G1-S

311
Q

What will happen if the checkpoints fail?

There will be an over proliferation of _____ which may become _____.

The faulty checkpoints make the cell _____ to check:

A

Abnormal cells
Cancerous

Unable
If the DNA replication was complete and properly replicated
If mutation in the DNA was repaired

312
Q

What is cancer?

A

Unrestrained uncontrolled growth of cells

313
Q

What can cause cancer?

A

Failure of cell cycle control

314
Q

What are the two types of genes that can disturb the cell cycle when they are mutated?

A

Tumor suppressor

Proto oncogenes

315
Q

What are pro oncogenes?

A

Cells that control cell growth, division, and death and when mutated they can lead to cancer

Needed to grow and survive

316
Q

Describe the functions of p53 protein.

A

Plays a key role in G1 checkpoint
Monitors integrity of DNA

317
Q

What happens if p53 protein is mutated?

A

If DNA is damaged, cell division is stopped and repairs damaged enzymes

If DNA damage is irreparable, p53 tells cell to kill itself

P53 is absent or damaged in many cancerous cells

318
Q

Transformation

A

Process in which a normal cell is changed to a cancerous cell

319
Q

Tumors

A

Masses of abnormal cells made from cancer cells within normal tissues

320
Q

Benign

A

Stays still

321
Q

Malignant

A

Spreads/ metastasize

Biology I (4 decks)

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