Ch. The Rest Of 3, 4, 5, & 6 Test Flashcards
What are the functions of DNA?
Long-term storage of information
What parts of the cell contain DNA?
The nucleus
What composes proteins?
Polypeptides
What are peptide bonds?
The bond that links amino acids together
What groups compose an amino acid?
Carboxyl, amino, side (R)
What is the carbon called that attaches amino acid groups together?
Alpha
What are the functions of proteins?
Catalyst
Support
Coordination
Transport
Movement
Defense
Receptors
How many kinds of amino acids make up a protein?
20
The 20 different kinds of amino acids are different with each other through what group?
The side (R) group
Differentiate essential amino acids from non-essential amino acids
Essential: cells cannot synthesize
Non-essential: cells can synthesize
Peptide bond is formed between what groups of the participating amino acids?
The amino group of the first and the carboxyl group of the second amino acid
What are the four levels of protein structure?
1.) primary
2.) secondary
3.) tertiary
4.) quaternary
What is the primary structure of a protein?
It’s amino acid sequence
Secondary structure, found in most proteins, consists of _____ and _____ in the polypeptide chain.
Alpha helix (coil), beta pleated (pleating)
What bonds are responsible for the secondary structure of the protein?
Hydrogen bonds
Tertiary structure is determined by?
The interactions of side chains from the polypeptide backbone
What bonds are responsible for the tertiary level structure of proteins?
Disulfide, ionic, and hydrophobic bonds
When does quaternary structure result?
When a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains.
What are polypeptide chains called?
Subunits
How many polypeptide chains compose collagen and hemoglobin? What are the functions of these proteins?
Collagen: 3, structural support
Hemoglobin: 4, transport of O2
What is denaturation?
Loss of a proteins native structure (secondary and tertiary).
Loses coiling structure (becomes linear)
What is renaturation?
Restoring a protein to its original structure.
If proteins are denatured, are the still biologically active?
No
What are some factors that affect the structure of proteins?
Change in temp or pH of the environment.
Give examples of lipids.
Fats, phospholipids, steroids
Are lipids polymers?
No
Are lipids soluble in water?
No
What are the functions of lipids? Give examples.
Energy storage (fats)
Component of cell membranes (phospholipids, steroids)
What makes up a fat molecule?
1 glycerol and fatty acids (hydrocarbon)
What is another name for fat?
Triacylglycerol
Differentiate saturated from unsaturated fatty acids.
Saturated fatty acids: no double bonds in hydrocarbon
Unsaturated fatty acids: one or more double bonds in hydrocarbon (oil)
What are saturated fats made of?
No double bonds of hydrocarbons
Are saturated fats solid at room temperature?
Yes
Give an example of a saturated fat.
Butter
What are unsaturated fats made of?
One or more double bonds of hydrocarbon
Are unsaturated fats liquid at room temperature?
Yes
Give examples of unsaturated fats.
Vegetable oil
Plant oil
Fish oil
What composes phospholipids?
Phosphate group
Glycerol
2 fatty acids
What group of the phospholipids is hydrophilic?
Head
What group of the phospholipids is hydrophobic?
Tails
What is hydrophilic?
Water loving
What is hydrophobic?
Water fearing
What is one major component of the cell membrane?
Bolster of phospholipids
What is common among steroids?
They have a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
Give examples of steroids.
Cortisol
Cholesterol
Testosterone
What does the cell theory state?
All organisms are composed of one or more cells
Cells are the basic living unit of structure and function in organisms
All cells come from other cells
Who was credited for formulating the cell theory?
Theodore Schwann
Matthias schleiden
Rodulf virchow
Why is the cell small and what limits the size of the cell?
The surface area to volume ratio
Compare volume, surface area and surface area to volume ratio in smaller cells and bigger cells
Small cell: SA=12.57 units squared, V=4.189 units cubed, SA/V is greater
Big cell: SA=1257, V=4189 units cubed, SA/V is smaller
Big cell is 10 times bigger than small cell
Big cells volume increases faster in volume than surface area because it is cubed
What is the importance of greater surface area to volume in smaller cells?
Greater surface area=
Faster rate of metabolism
Faster rate of transport
Faster growth rate
What is microscopy?
The use of a microscope (light or electrons) to magnify objects
What is wavelength?
Increasing resolving power from A to B
What has greater resolving power on the white light scale?
Violet because it is 400 nm and red has 700 micro m
What lights are used in microscopy?
Light and electron
What is resolution?
Clarity of an image
What is resolving power?
Limit of resolution= minimum distance between two points to be viewed as separate (TWO different objects)
What is magnification?
Apparent increase in the size of the specimen or the object.
How do you determine total magnification?
Multiplying the objective lens by the ocular lens
What times (x) is the objective lens?
10x
Why do light rays bend when they travel from air to glass?
Because air is less dense than glass so there is a change in density
Describe how an image is produced in the compound microscope.
The image appears larger and inverted (opposite)
Why is the object inverted when observed under the microscope?
There is bending of light (refraction)
What is contrast?
The difference in light intensity or color between a specimen and its background
Which tail on the phospholipid is saturated and why?
The straight tail because it is linear not bent which means there are no double bonds
What is the limit of resolution of humans?
0.1 mm
What is the relationship for a better picture of resolution and a worse picture of resolution?
The smaller the number, the better the picture
What is a way to tell something’s limit of resolution?
If the two points are equal or greater than its limit of resolution then it is resolved
What has more resolution power?
Electron
What are the two types of cells?
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Differentiate prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells.
Pro- DNA in the nucleiod (no nucleus)
Euk- DNA in the nucleus
What are examples of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
Pro- bacteria
Euk- animals, fungi
Parts of a bacterial cell.
Fimbriae or pili- sometimes
Nucleiod
Ribosomes
Plasma membrane
Cell wall- except mycoplasmas
Capsule- sometimes
Flagella- sometimes
Function of a fimbriae or pili.
For attachment
Function of nucleiod.
Contains genetic material (DNA)
Function of ribosomes.
For protein synthesis
Function of plasma membrane.
For ATP generation (cellular respiration) photosynthesis, transport
Function of the cell wall.
For protection against osmotic lysis
Function of a capsule.
For protection against phagocytes and for attachment
Function of the flagella.
For movement or motility
Comparison of animals vs plants.
Plants- water moving in the cell will not burst the cell, making ATP (cellular respiration) takes place in the plasma membrane
Animals- water in the cell will burst the cell, making ATP takes place in the mitochondria
What parts are present in all animal cells and absent in plant cells?
Centrosome and lysosome
What parts are present in plant cells and absent in animal cells?
Central vacuoles and cell wall
What parts are present in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?
Ribosome and plasma membrane
What parts are present in both plant and animal cells?
Ribosomes
Cytoskeleton
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi bodies
Perixisomes
Vesicles
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Plasma membrane
DNA
How is a cell analogous to a factory like a a chocolate factory?
Different parts of both have specific functions
What is the function of the nucleus?
Stores DNA (site of rRNA synthesis)
What structure encloses the nuclear materials?
Nuclear envelope/membrane
What structure regulates the entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus?
Nuclear pore
What is the function of ribosomes?
Synthesize proteins
What substances compose ribosomes?
rRNA and proteins
What part of the cell are ribosomes located?
Cytoplasm
Differentiate eukaryotic ribosomes from prokaryotic ribosomes.
Pro- has free ribosomes
Euk- has bounded ribosomes
What are the components of the endomembrane system?
1.) nuclear envelope
2.) endoplasmic reticulum
3.) lysosomes
4.) vacuoles
5.) Golgi apparatus
6.) plasma membrane
Describe the transport of proteins and lipids in the endomembrane system.
RER and SER—>Golgi—>plasma membrane
Differentiate the two kinds of ER.
Rough- has ribosomes
Smooth- does not have ribosomes
What are the functions of smooth ER?
Makes proteins for inside the cell
Distributes transport vesicles
Membrane factory for the cell
What are the functions of rough ER?
Makes proteins to export out of the cell
Synthesizes lipids and steroids
Metabolizes carbohydrates
Detoxifies drugs and poisons
Stores calcium ions
What are the functions of Golgi bodies?
Modifies products of the ER
Manufactures certain macro-molecules
Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
What is cisternae?
Flattened membranous sacs like Golgi bodies
What are the functions of lysosomes?
Digestion of proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids
What are vacuoles and where do they derive from?
A membrane-bounded vesicle derived from the ER and Golgi
What are the kinds of vacuoles?
Food
Contractile
Central
What is the food vacuole?
A vacuole that is formed from phagocytosis
What is the function of contractile vacuoles?
To pump excess water out of cells
What is the vacuole found in plants?
Central
What are the functions of the central vacuole?
Digestion
Storage
Waste disposal
Water balance
Cell growth
Protection
Are fibrullae long or short?
Short
Is the flagellum long or short?
Long
What is the capsule made of and what are they protection against?
Polysaccharides and protect against WBC’s
What are chromosomes made of?
DNA
How does gene expression take place?
DNA—>mRNA—>Proteins
How do proteins transport?
RER—>Golgi—>plasma membrane
How do lipids transport?
SER—>Golgi—>plasma membrane
What does hydrolysis mean?
Break down
What is a peroxisome?
Specialized metabolic compartments
What are the functions of a peroxisome?
Produce catalase
What is the action of a catalase?
An enzyme that will break down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen
Give the functions of the plasma membrane.
Regulates transport
Shape
Protection
The plasma membrane is semi-permeable. What is meant by semi-permeable?
Some materials can pass through and some cannot (selective)
What macromolecules compose the plasma membrane?
Phospholipids and proteins
The mitochondrion has inner and outer membranes. What is the inner membrane called?
Plasma membrane
What are the wavy folds in the inner membrane?
Cristae
Why does the inner membrane have Cristae?
To increase surface area for cellular respiration
What are contained in the matrix of the mitochondria?
Enzymes for cellular respiration
What is the function of chloroplasts?
Site of photosynthesis
What is the green pigment in chloroplasts?
Chlorophyll
What are the parts of the chloroplasts?
Inner and outer membrane
Thylakoid
Stroma
Granum
What are granum?
Thylakoids that are stacked together
What are stroma?
The liquid portion in chloroplast
What are the similarities of mitochondria and chloroplasts with bacteria?
They have free ribosomes and circular data
They grow and produce somewhat independently in the cell
Discuss the formation of mitochondria and chloroplasts by the endosymbiont theory?
A eukaryotic (non-photosynthetic) cell engulfs a prokaryote (photosynthetic), which then formed an endosymbiotic relationship with the host eukaryote, gradually developing into a mitochondrion
Eukaryotes become a mitochondria and prokaryotes become a chloroplast
What are cytoskeletons?
Network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm
What are the functions of cytoskeletons?
Support
Shape
Motility
What are the components of the cytoskeleton and describe each?
Microtubule- largest diameter
Intermediate filaments- between diameter
Actin filaments- smallest diameter
What is a centrosome?
Short cylinders
What is a centrosomes functions?
In animal cells, microtubules grow out near the nucleus
Participates in cell division
Microtubule-organizing center
Where is the centrosome found and what does it have?
Found in the nuclear envelope
It has a pair of centrioles
What is a centriole composed of?
Nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring
What are the functions of the cell wall?
Protection
Support
Shape
What is the major composition of cell walls in plants?
Mainly cellulose
What is the major composition of cell walls in fungi?
Mainly chitin
What is the major composition of cell walls in bacteria?
Peptidoglycan
Name the layers of plant cell walls and describe them.
Primary wall-outer wall
Secondary wall-inside primary wall
Middle lamella-space in between
Plasma membrane- outside cell wall
What are plasmodesmata?
Specialized openings in cell walls
What is the extracellular matrix? (ECM)
An elaborate mixture of glycoproteins secreted by animal cells into the space around them
What is the function of ECM?
protection
What is a “cell-to-cell” interaction?
Cells make contact “read” each other and react
What do cells use to make contact “read” each other and react?
Glycolipids and MHC proteins
What are glycolipids?
Most tissue-specific cell surface markers
What are MHC proteins?
Recognition of “self” and “non self” cells by the immune system
What are the three kinds of cell connections?
Adhesive junctions
Septate or tight junctions
Communicating junctions
What does the adhesive junction do?
Attaches cytoskeletons of neighboring cells or cells to the ECM ( includes adherents junctions and desmosomes)
What does the septate or tight junctions do?
Connects the plasma membranes of adjacent cells in a sheet (no leakage)
What does communicating junctions do?
Chemical or electrical signal passes directly from one cell to another adjacent one (gap junction and plasmodesmata)
What bounds the cell from its surroundings?
Cell/plasma membrane
The plasma membrane is semi permeable. What is meant by semipermeable?
Very selective
What is one major function of the plasma membrane?
Regulates transport of materials?
Describe the structure and composition of the plasma membrane according to the fluid mosaic model. What composes the plasma membrane?
Composed primarily of a phospholipid bilayer, with embedded proteins, cholesterol molecules, and associated carbohydrates.
How many layers of phospholipids are there?
2
Where are the proteins located?
Phospholipid bilayer
What are the four major components of the plasma membrane?
Phospholipid bilayer
Transmembrane proteins
Interior protein network
Cell surface markers
What component is responsible for the semi permeability of the plasma membrane?
Phospholipid bilayer
What component is responsible for transport of substances?
Transmembrane proteins
What component is responsible for support?
Interior proteins
What component is responsible for surface markers?
Cell surface markers
Where does photosynthesis happen?
Stroma
Where does cellular respiration and photosynthesis happen?
Plasma membrane
Where is chlorophyll found?
Plasma membrane
Does non photosynthetic organisms have chlorophyll?
No
How is d perceived in the microscope?
Upside down and backwards (inverted) (p)
What engulfs what in endosymbiosis?
Non photosynthetic engulfs photosynthetic
What type of molecule are phospholipids?
Amphiphatic
What is amphiphatic?
Has hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
Is the plasma membrane more fluid with saturated or unsaturated fats?
Unsaturated
What is a fluidity buffer?
Helps maintain consistent level of fluidity
What works as a fluidity buffer in the plasma membrane?
Cholesterol
How does the fluidity buffer work with different temps?
Higher temp (>37C)= restricts movement of phospholipids (increase fluidity)
Lower temp (<37C)= prevents phospholipids from packing closely together ( decrease fluidity)
What are the different membrane proteins?
Transport
Receptor
Adhesion
Recognition
Enzyme
Structural
Function of a transport protein
Move molecules across the cell membrane
Function of a receptor protein
Received and transmits signals
Function of adhesion proteins
Helps stick to each other or to ECM
Function of recognition proteins
Helps identify cells
Function of enzyme proteins
Speeds up chemical rxns
Function of structural proteins
Maintains shape and structure
Describe the movement of most phospholipids and proteins
Diffuse laterally through the membrane
What factor affects the state of the membranes?
Temperature
Membranes rich in unsaturated fatty acid are ___.
More fluid
Membranes rich in saturated fatty acids are _____.
More rigid
Does passive transport or active transport require energy (ATP)?
Active
Does passive transport or active transport have materials move along a concentration gradient?
Passive
Does passive transport or active transport have materials run against the concentration gradient?
Active
What is passive transport?
Moves substances from an area of high concentration to low concentration
No ATP
What is active transport?
Movement of substances from a low concentration to a high concentration
Use of ATP
What is diffusion?
Movement of high concentration to low concentration down the concentration gradient
When does net diffusion stop?
When it gets to equilibrium
When at equilibrium, do molecules stop moving?
No
Is diffusion of one compound independent to diffusion of other compounds?
Yes
What is facilitated diffusion?
From an area of high concentration to low concentration with help of transport protein
Glucose enters the cells by what transport process?
Facilitated diffusion
What are the two types of transport proteins involved in facilitated diffusion?
Channel proteins
Carrier proteins
Differentiate channel proteins from carrier proteins
Channel- specific
Carrier- non specific
How are diffusion and facilitated diffusion different?
Diffusion- no transport proteins, movement of water
Facilitated diffusion- transport proteins, movement of larger molecules
What is osmosis
Movement of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane into an area of higher solute concentration
What is the principle of osmosis?
The movement of water (dilute) to a place of higher concentration
What is a hypotonic solution?
Solution outside the cell is dilute compared to solution outside cell
Where does water move in a hypotonic solution?
Water moves into the cell
What happens to plant cells and RBCs in a hypotonic solution?
Plant cell- stiffens
RBC- burst
What is a hypertonic solution?
Solution outside the cell is concentrated compared to solution inside the cell
Where does water move in a hypertonic solution?
Water moves out of the cell
What happens to a plant cell and an RBC in a hypertonic solution?
Plant cell- shrink
RBC- shrink
What is plasmolysis?
Plant cell loses water
What is an isotonic solution?
Solution outside the cell stays the same compared to solution inside the cell
What happens to the water in an isotonic solution?
Stays the same (equal)
What happens to the cell in an isotonic solution?
Stays the same
What are the carrier proteins involved in active transport?
Uniporters
Symporters
Antiporters
Uniporter?
Move one molecule at a time
Symporter?
Move two molecules in the same direction
Antiporter?
Move two molecules in the opposite direction
In the sodium potassium pump, what two fluids are there?
Intracellular and extracellular
Intracellular fluid?
Higher concentration of potassium and lower concentration of sodium
Extracellular fluid?
Higher concentration of sodium and lower concentration of potassium
Sodium ions move from?
Low to high
Potassium ions move from?
High to low
Why is ATP needed in active transport?
Provides energy to move against the concentration gradient
Difference between active transport and facilitated transport?
Active- uses ATP against a concentration gradient
Facilitated- does not use ATP down a concentration gradient
Two types transport in passive transport
Simple diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Transport in active transport
Bulk transport
Types of bulk transport
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
Aquaporin?
Carrier for water
Free water?
Not attracted to sugar
Bound water?
Attracted to sugar
Concentrated?
High sugar, low free water
Dilute?
Low sugar, high free water
Explain the application of osmosis and active transport in the life cycle of salmon.
Freshwater: water enters, does not drink, sodium and potassium are going in, urine is dilute.
Saltwater: water exports, drinks, sodium and potassium are going out, urine is concentrate.
Endocytosis?
Movement of substances into the cell
Three types of endocytosis?
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Phagocytosis?
Cells take place in a particulate manner
Pinocytosis?
Cell takes in fluid only
Receptor-mediated endocytosis?
Specific molecules are taken in after they bind to a receptor
Exocytosis?
Discharge of materials out of the cell
Uses of Exocytosis?
Used in plants to export cell wall material
Used in animals to secrete hormones, neurotransmitters, and digestive enzymes
Difference between endocytosis and Exocytosis?
Endo- engulfs materials
Exo- exports materials
Thermodynamics?
Science of the relationship between heat, work, temperature, and energy
First law of thermodynamics?
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can be changed from one form to another
Second law of thermodynamics?
Energy cannot be changed from one form to another without a loss of usable energy
What is entropy?
Disorder/randomness
What is energy?
Ability to do work or bring about change
What is energy measured as?
Calories or Jules
Two forms of energy?
Kinetic and potential
Difference in kinetic and potential energy?
Kinetic- energy in motion
Potential- energy that matter possesses
Examples of kinetic energy?
Light
Mechanical (motion)
Electrical
Thermal (heat)
Examples of potential energy?
Chemical energy:
Food, gas, wood
Gravitational energy:
Energy from height above the earth
Light energy from the sun is transformed by plants to _____ energy.
Potential
When plants are eaten by animals, the chemical energy is transformed to _____ energy.
Kinetic
When animals walk, move or run, the chemical energy is transformed to _____ energy.
Kinetic
What is released to the environment when energy is transformed from one form to another?
Heat energy
Redox reaction?
Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants
Oxidation?
A substance loses electrons
Reduction?
Substance gains an electron
What is free energy?
Energy that can do work when temperature and pressure are uniform, as in a living cell
G<0
Spontaneous
Reactants have more free energy than products
Downhill rxn
Exergonic
G>0
Non spontaneous
Reactants have less free energy than products
Uphill rxn
Endergonic
Difference between exergonic and endergonic
Exergonic- release of energy, breaking big molecules
Endergonic- absorbs energy, building big molecules
What is ATP?
Adenosine tri phosphate, energy
Three components of ATP?
3 phosphates
Ribose
Adenine
When one phosphate of ATP is hydrolyzed, what is released?
Free energy
What is used to perform cellular work?
ATP
What are some types of cellular work?
Mechanical
Chemical
Transport
Similarities and differences of combustion and cell respiration?
Combustion- kinetic energy for movement, one time release
Cell respiration- energy for cellular work, gradual release
They both convert
What is an enzyme?
Catalyst
Catalyst?
Speeds up chemical rxn
Are enzymes very specific for the reactants (substrates)?
Yes
Are enzymes consumed after the rxn?
No
How are enzymes named?
By adding suffix “ase”
Active site?
Region on enzyme that substrate binds
Substrate?
Reactant that an enzyme acts on
Enzyme-substrate complex?
Complex that is formed when enzyme binds to its substrate
Steps of sucrose breaking down by sucrase.
1.) sugars are bonded
2.) sucrose binds to substrate
3.) binding of substrate stresses bind until it breaks
4.) products are released and enzyme can bind again
How does an enzyme speed up chemical rxns in a cell?
Lowering activation energy by orienting correctly and or straining bonds
What is activation energy?
Initial energy needed to start a chemical rxn
Would a catalyzed or uncatalyzed rxn occur faster and why?
Catalyzed because the activation energy is lower
Explain the induced fit model of enzyme in action.
The enzyme changes shape when the substrate enters it
Factors affecting rate of enzyme activity?
Temperature
pH
Concentration of enzyme
Concentration of substrate
Effect of temp on rate of enzyme action?
When temp increases the enzyme action is faster because there are more enzymes until the optimum and past the optimum hydrogen bonds break (denature)
Effect of pH on rate of enzyme action?
Below or above optimum pH enzymes denature. Enzymes must stay at optimum pH.
Why do apples slices turn brown after being cut?
They are oxidized by oxygen and polyphenoloxidase (enzyme)
Coating an apple with sugar?
Oxygen is prevented therefore no browning
Soaking apple in pineapple or lemon juice?
Kills enzymes doesn’t brown
Blanching apple in boiling water?
Kills enzymes, doesn’t brown
What do phagocytes do in cell?
Eat or engulf
In cellular respiration, what is potential energy converted to?
Potential energy
What happens do reducing agent?
Oxidized
What happens to oxidizing agent?
Reduced
Gibbs free energy equation?
H-TS
Are enzymes proteins?
Yes