Ch 9 Discursive Psychology

Question 1

What was the shift in focus during the “Turn to Language”?

Answer 1

The shift was from individual intentions to the productive potential of language, which began to be seen as constructing versions of social reality and achieving social objectives.

Question 2

What disciplines influenced psychology’s turn to language?

Answer 2

Philosophy, communication theory, history, and sociology—particularly the works of Wittgenstein, Austen’s speech theory, and Foucault’s studies of discursive practices.

Question 3

What were some key critiques of cognitivism according to Potter and Wetherell (1987)?

Answer 3

Talk is not simply a route to cognition, 2) Cognition is not always based on perception, 3) Objective perception of reality is questionable, 4) There aren’t consensual objects of thought, 5) Cognitive structures aren’t necessarily enduring.

Question 4

How do cognitive psychologists and discourse analysts differ in their view of language?

Answer 4

Cognitive psychologists see language as a way to express and access internal cognitions (thoughts, beliefs). Discourse analysts view language as a social action, where meaning is shaped by social context and participants’ goals in conversation.

Question 5

Why is social context important in discourse analysis?

Answer 5

In discourse analysis, what people say is shaped by their social context, e.g., disclaiming undesirable identities like “sexist” in certain situations. People’s responses aim to achieve social objectives, like managing how they are perceived.

Question 6

What does discourse analysis emphasise about speech?

Answer 6

Speech is seen as social action aimed at accomplishing something in conversation, not simply reflecting internal thoughts. People’s attitudes may vary across different social contexts depending on the stakes involved.

Question 7

How do cognitive psychologists view cognitions in relation to reality?

Answer 7

Cognitions are mental representations of real-world objects, events, and processes, even if they simplify or distort them. These representations help interpret new experiences and are seen as attempts to capture reality.

Question 8

What is the discourse analytic stance on representations of reality?

Answer 8

Discourse analysts argue that reality is constructed through language, not represented. There’s no objective perception of reality; meaning is negotiated and constructed through social interaction and discourse.

Question 9

How do cognitive psychologists explain errors in perception, and how do discourse analysts respond?

Answer 9

Cognitive psychologists attribute errors in perception to biases or heuristics, while discourse analysts argue that perceptions are constructed through language, so the idea of an objective reality is flawed.

Question 10

What is the cognitive perspective on attitudes and attribution theory?

Answer 10

Attitudes describe evaluations of social objects, and attribution theory focuses on how people explain events. The cognitive approach assumes that the objects themselves are consensual (i.e., everyone agrees on what the object is, but disagrees on why it happens or if it is good or bad).

Question 11

How do discourse analysts view attitudes and attributions?

Answer 11

Discourse analysts argue that social objects are constructed through language. People’s attitudes and attributions reflect how they discursively construct the object or event, rather than differing views on a stable, consensual object.

Question 12

How would discourse analysts explain different accounts of the breakup of the Soviet Union?

Answer 12

If framed as a result of economic processes, it’s attributed to global economic factors. If framed as a victory in the Cold War, it’s attributed to US political strategies. The object itself is constructed differently through language, not just the attitudes towards it.

Question 13

What is the role of cognitive structures in cognitivism?

Answer 13

Cognitivism assumes that stable cognitive structures (like beliefs and attitudes) exist in the mind and remain predictable over time. Changes in these structures are explained by external variables like new experiences or persuasive messages.

Question 14

How does discourse analysis challenge the concept of stable cognitive structures?

Answer 14

Discourse analysis argues that people’s accounts and views are context-dependent, shaped by the discursive situation. Speech acts (e.g., justifying, excusing) reveal what people are doing with language, not underlying stable cognitive structures.

Question 15

How is discourse analysis more than just a research method?

Answer 15

Discourse analysis critiques mainstream psychology, offering an alternative way to conceptualize language and psychological phenomena. It focuses on the productive nature of discourse and the construction of social reality through language.

Question 16

What are the two main versions of discourse analysis in qualitative psychology?

Answer 16

Discursive Psychology (DP) and Foucauldian Discourse Analysis (FDA). DP focuses on local interaction and how language is used to achieve interpersonal objectives, while FDA is concerned with how discourse constructs subjectivity, selfhood, and power relations.

Question 17

What intellectual traditions inspire Discursive Psychology and Foucauldian discourse?

Answer 17

DP is inspired by ethno-methodology and conversation analysis, focusing on everyday interactions. FDA is influenced by Foucault and post-structuralism, focusing on how language shapes social and psychological life.

Question 18

What does discursive psychology focus on?

Answer 18

DP studies discursive practices, emphasising what people do with language in social interactions. It is concerned with how language is used to manage social interactions and achieve interpersonal goals (e.g., justifying actions, attributing blame).

Question 19

What is Foucauldian discourse analysis concerned with?

Answer 19

FDA focuses on the discursive resources available to people, exploring how discourse constructs subjectivity and power relations. It examines how different discourses shape people’s identity and experiences.

Question 20

What kind of research questions do Discursive Psychology and Foucauldian discourse analysis address?

Answer 20

DP asks how language is used to negotiate and manage social interactions. FDA seeks to critique discursive worlds, exploring the implications for subjectivity and experience, such as what it means to be positioned as a particular social identity (e.g., asylum seeker).

Question 21

When was discursive psychology introduced, and by whom?

Answer 21

Discursive psychology (DP) was introduced by Potter and Wetherell in 1987 with their publication Discourse in Social Psychology, Beyond Attitudes and Behaviour. The term ‘discursive psychology’ was later provided by Edwards and Potter in 1992.

Question 22

How has discursive psychology evolved?

Answer 22

DP has increasingly emphasised the flexibility of discursive resources and the use of naturalistic data sources. It has drawn closer to conversation analysis (CA), focusing on the fine detail of talk in everyday interactions.

Question 23

What is conversation analysis, and how is it related to Discursive Psychology?

Answer 23

CA studies how talk is structured and organised, documenting rules and practices in everyday interactions. It has influenced DP, and the boundary between DP and CA has become blurred, as both now focus on naturally occurring data.

Question 24

What type of data does discursive psychology prioritise?

Answer 24

DP focuses on naturally occurring data, meaning conversations that would have happened anyway without researcher intervention, aiming to understand common features of talk in interaction.

Question 25

How does Discursive psychology conceptualise psychological phenomena like memory and identity?

Answer 25

DP treats psychological phenomena such as memory and identity as discursive actions, not cognitive processes. These concepts are something people do in social interactions, rather than something they have.

Question 26

What are discursive strategies in Discursive psychology?

Answer 26

DP examines how participants manage issues of stake and interest in conversations. Strategies include disclaiming, footing, using metaphors, extreme case formulations, and graphic descriptions.

Question 27

How is disclaiming used to manage a social identity in Discursive psychology?

Answer 27

An example of disclaiming: A person might say, “I am not racist, but I think immigration control should be strengthened,” managing a potentially undesirable identity while justifying their stance by referring to a higher authority (e.g., the Prime Minister).

Question 28

How does Discursive psychology critique mainstream psychology?

Answer 28

DP emerged as a critique of cognitivism in mainstream psychology. It re-examines psychological concepts like attitudes, memory, and prejudice through a discursive lens, challenging traditional assumptions about these concepts.

Question 29

What has Discursive psychology contributed to understanding psychological constructs?

Answer 29

DP has respecified psychological constructs like identity and prejudice, viewing them as shared discursive practices rather than internal cognitive processes.

Question 30

Has Discursive psychology continued to challenge mainstream psychology?

Answer 30

Over time, DP has become more incorporated into mainstream psychology. While it offers an alternative way of understanding human behavior, it has ceased to challenge the discipline as radically as it initially did.

Question 31

Why does discursive psychology prefer naturally occurring texts and talk?

Answer 31

Discursive psychology is concerned with how people manage accountability and stake in everyday life, which is best explored through unsolicited conversations in familiar settings (e.g., home, workplace).

Question 32

What are examples of naturally occurring data used in discourse analysis?

Answer 32

Examples include telephone conversations, police interviews, medical consultations, radio interviews, and counselling sessions.

Question 33

What is a drawback of using semi-structured interviews in discourse analysis?

Answer 33

Semi-structured interviews often reveal how participants manage their stake as interviewees, rather than showing discursive strategies in everyday life. Researchers must also analyse both interviewers and interviewees comments.

Question 34

Why might group discussions be preferable for data generation?

Answer 34

Group discussions, especially with pre-existing groups (friends, colleagues), can stimulate more natural conversations, making participants more relaxed and spontaneous.

Question 35

What are the challenges of interviewing friends in discourse analysis?

Answer 35

Interviewing friends can lead to challenging dynamics and may result in reappraisals of each other, complicating the interview process.

Question 36

How time-consuming is transcription, and what transcription style is often used in discourse analysis?

Answer 36

Transcribing can take at least 10 hours for a one-hour interview. A reduced transcription style known as Jefferson-lite is often used, which retains key features like pauses, interruptions, and emphasis.

Question 37

Why are non-linguistic aspects important in transcription?

Answer 37

Non-linguistic cues like tone of voice, delays, and emphasis affect the meaning of what is said, such as detecting irony.

Question 38

What influences sample size in discourse analysis?

Answer 38

Sample size is influenced by time constraints and the specific research question. Researchers often work with smaller samples but can still produce meaningful analyses with limited data.

Question 39

What is the “specimen perspective” in conversation analysis?

Answer 39

The “specimen perspective” focuses on identifying typical rather than exceptional material from a vast pool of data, aiming to find common patterns.

Question 40

When might a single text be the focus of discourse analysis?

Answer 40

A single text may be analysed when the goal is to understand how it achieves its effect, such as with a political speech, advertising campaign, or movie scene.

Question 41

How does discourse analysis conceptualise language?

Answer 41

Discourse analysis views language as constructive and functional, asking what discourse is doing rather than focusing solely on what it is saying.

Question 42

What kind of orientation does discourse analysis require towards talk and text?

Answer 42

Discourse analysis requires a focus on talk and text as social action, analysing what the text is doing rather than just interpreting its meaning.

Question 43

Can discourse analysis be learned quickly like a recipe?

Answer 43

No, discourse analysis involves craft skills and tacit knowledge. It cannot be learned quickly or followed like a strict method but requires deep understanding of its theoretical framework.

Question 44

Why is the theoretical approach important in discourse analysis?

Answer 44

Discourse analysis must be grounded in a theoretical understanding of the nature of discourse and its role in social life before analysing texts.

Question 45

What guidelines exist for novice discourse analysts?

Answer 45

Leading discourse analysts like Potter and Wetherell and Billig provide procedural guides, but caution against following them too rigidly as discourse analysis depends on flexible craft skills.

Question 46

What do authors caution against in discourse analysis?

Answer 46

Authors like Antaki et al. and Huma et al. advise against following procedural guidelines too rigidly, as discourse analysis requires adaptability and theoretical insight.

Question 47

How many stages do Potter and Wetherell identify for discourse analysis?

Answer 47

Potter and Wetherell identify ten stages in discourse analysis, offering a structured approach, but with the reminder to remain flexible.

Question 48

What is the first step in analysing discourse transcripts?

Answer 48

The researcher must read the transcripts carefully without attempting any analysis. This allows the researcher to experience the discursive effects of the text.

Question 49

Why is it important to read the transcript before analysis?

Answer 49

Reading before analysis helps the researcher become aware of what the text is doing, such as conveying an apology or creating a certain atmosphere.

Question 50

What is the purpose of reading before analysis?

Answer 50

The purpose is to recognise how the text accomplishes certain effects and to prepare for identifying the mechanisms used during the formal analysis.

Question 51

Why should researchers listen to recordings alongside transcripts?

Answer 51

Listening to recordings helps confirm instances of tone, irony, or sarcasm that may not be fully captured by the transcription.

Question 52

When should recordings be revisited during analysis?

Answer 52

Researchers should revisit recordings when they suspect the transcription does not capture the full tone or nuance of the original speech.

Question 53

What is the purpose of coding in discourse analysis?

Answer 53

Coding selects relevant material from transcripts based on the research question, identifying text that will be analysed in detail.

Question 54

How is coding guided by the research question?

Answer 54

The research question determines what material is relevant for analysis. All sections directly, indirectly, or vaguely related to the question are included.

Question 55

Are keywords necessary for selecting material during coding?

Answer 55

No, implicit constructions and references, even without specific keywords, must be included if they relate to the research question.

Question 56

What should be included during the coding process?

Answer 56

Ensure all potentially relevant material is included, even if the connection to the research question is indirect or vague.

Question 57

Does coding capture all aspects of a discourse?

Answer 57

No, coding focuses on specific aspects related to the research question, leaving other discourse elements unanalysed. The material can be reanalysed for further insights

Question 58

What questions should researchers ask during discourse analysis according to Potter and Wetherell?

Answer 58

Researchers should ask, “Why am I reading this passage in this way?” and “What features of the text produce this reading?”

Question 59

What five key questions should guide discourse analysis according to Huma et al. (2020)?

Answer 59

1. What actions are being performed and how? 2. What version of the world is being constructed and by whom? 3. What are the upshots of this depiction? 4. What is at stake, and how are those stakes managed? 5. How is the phenomenon of interest constructed?

Question 60

What are the constructive and functional dimensions in discourse analysis?

Answer 60

The analysis focuses on how the text constructs objects and subjects, how constructions vary across contexts, and the consequences of these constructions.

Question 61

What are interpretive repertoires in discourse analysis?

Answer 61

Interpretive repertoires are systems of terms used to construct different versions of events. They may vary across contexts and be used for different social objectives. Example: Imagine two people discussing the same protest. One person describes the protesters as “freedom fighters” while the other calls them “lawbreakers.” Both are using different interpretive repertoires—one emphasizing the protesters’ fight for rights, and the other highlighting their violation of the law. These different repertoires construct contrasting versions of the same event.

Question 62

What is the role of action orientation in discourse analysis?

Answer 62

Researchers must trace the action orientation of accounts by analysing how accounts are produced and their consequences within the conversation’s context. • Example: In a job interview, when someone says, “I always go above and beyond at work,” they may be trying to position themselves as a hardworking, reliable employee (the action orientation). The interviewer might also respond in a way that shows whether they accept or challenge that identity. The action orientation helps you see what each speaker is trying to accomplish through their words.

Question 63

Why is variability important in discourse analysis?

Answer 63

Variability across contexts reveals how different repertoires are used to achieve rhetorical objectives. The context helps understand why certain themes are deployed. • Example: A person might talk about the importance of saving money when discussing their personal finances but switch to encouraging spending when discussing government policies during a recession. The variability in how the person talks about money across different contexts (personal vs. government) helps us see how their language shifts depending on the situation.

Question 64

What do tensions and contradictions in interpretive repertoires indicate?

Answer 64

They show that discursive resources are dilemmatic, containing contrary themes that can be pitted against each other in different contexts. Example: A parent might say, “I want my kids to be independent, but I also feel the need to protect them.” These two contradictory repertoires—independence vs. protection—reflect the dilemmatic nature of their thinking. In different situations, they might emphasise one idea over the other.

Question 65

Why have interpretive repertoires been criticised in contemporary research?

Answer 65

They have been criticised for not accommodating the complexity and variability of human interaction, making it hard to delineate specific repertoires. • Example: If someone’s speech constantly shifts—one minute they talk about environmentalism, and the next about business profits—it can be difficult to neatly classify their statements into distinct repertoires. This criticism argues that real-life talk is often too complex and fluid to be broken down into simple interpretive categories.

Question 66

What is a key focus limitation of discursive psychology?

Answer 66

Discursive psychology focuses exclusively on discourse, analysing how it is constructed, its functions, and consequences, without addressing mental states or cognitive processes.

Question 67

What critique did Langdridge offer about discursive psychology?

Answer 67

Langdridge criticised discursive psychology for its “lack of a person,” meaning it overlooks individual subjectivity, like memory, identity, or emotions, and focuses only on how these are negotiated in discourse.

Question 68

How does discursive psychology treat psychological concepts like memory and identity?

Answer 68

It examines how people negotiate the meaning of psychological concepts through discourse rather than addressing these phenomena as internal or cognitive processes.

Question 69

Why is discursive psychology considered a non-cognitive form of social psychology?

Answer 69

It focuses solely on public discourse and does not consider internal states like self-awareness, intentionality, or private thoughts unless they are invoked in social interaction.

Question 70

What limitation arises from discursive psychology’s focus on observable linguistic behavior?

Answer 70

It has been criticised for adopting a narrow behavioristic approach by focusing only on language, not providing guidance on studying internalised thoughts or self-awareness.

Question 71

What warning do Potter and Wetherell give about debates on mental states in discourse analysis?

Answer 71

They caution against debates about the reality of mental states, suggesting that discourse analysis should avoid “linguistic imperialism” that denies the significance of cognitive processes.

Question 72

What is the role of accountability and stake in discursive psychology?

Answer 72

Discursive psychology emphasises that participants use interpretive repertoires and discursive devices strategically to manage interactions and pursue social objectives based on their stake in the conversation.

Question 73

What is the role of accountability and stake in discursive psychology?

Answer 73

Discursive psychology emphasises that participants use interpretive repertoires and discursive devices strategically to manage interactions and pursue social objectives based on their stake in the conversation.

Question 74

What limitation does discursive psychology face regarding motivation?

Answer 74

It cannot explain why individuals pursue certain discursive objects or stakes at particular times, or why they may avoid certain strategies, like apologising, despite potential benefits.

Question 75

What limitation does discursive psychology face regarding motivation?

Answer 75

It cannot explain why individuals pursue certain discursive objects or stakes at particular times, or why they may avoid certain strategies, like apologising, despite potential benefits.

Question 76

How do qualitative psychologists address the limitation of motivation in discursive psychology?

Answer 76

They combine discursive analysis with psychodynamic interrogation in a psychosocial approach to explore deeper psychological structures and emotional investments in discourse.

Question 77

Why do some discourse analysts criticise the psychosocial approach?

Answer 77

Many discourse analysts are uncomfortable with using psychodynamic concepts and have reservations about combining discursive analysis with deeper psychological interpretations.

Question 78

Why do some discourse analysts criticise the psychosocial approach?

Answer 78

Many discourse analysts are uncomfortable with using psychodynamic concepts and have reservations about combining discursive analysis with deeper psychological interpretations.

Question 79

What is a key limitation of discursive psychology’s focus on text?

Answer 79

Discursive psychology often limits its analysis to the text itself, disregarding wider social and material contexts unless explicitly referenced by participants in their talk.

Question 80

How has discursive psychology expanded its methods in recent years?

Answer 80

It has started incorporating video recordings to analyse gestures, gaze, physical orientation, and non-lexical vocalisations, adding more depth to conversation analysis.

Question 81

What is an example of the importance of social context in interpreting discourse?

Answer 81

Understanding a suspect’s silence in a police interview may require knowing if the officer was holding a gun, illustrating the need to consider social and material context.

Question 82

What kind of knowledge does discursive psychology aim to produce?

Answer 82

Discursive psychology focuses on how versions of reality are constructed and enacted in conversation, not the true nature of psychological phenomena like memory or prejudice.

Question 83

What does discursive psychology study instead of psychological phenomena like mental states?

Answer 83

It studies how psychological phenomena are constituted in talk as social actions and the processes by which they are talked into being.

Question 84

How is discursive psychology aligned with social constructionism?

Answer 84

It produces knowledge about how constructions are brought into being through interpretive repertoires and discursive devices in social contexts, without making claims about the nature of the world.

Question 85

What assumptions does discursive psychology make about the world?

Answer 85

Discursive psychology views the world as shifting and negotiable, understood only through language, which is constructive and functional, with no final truth or fixed understanding.

Question 86

How does discursive psychology view language in relation to the world?

Answer 86

Language is seen as both constructive and functional, and discursive psychologists focus on how various versions of the world are constructed in conversation for specific social actions.

Question 87

What is the role of the researcher in discursive psychology?

Answer 87

The researcher is seen as an active author of the research, constructing findings through their analysis rather than acting as a neutral observer or discoverer of truths.

Question 88

How does Billig describe the process of discursive analysis?

Answer 88

Billig notes that discursive analysis is never truly completed, and the final draft is more a product of deadlines or exhaustion, offering insights rather than definitive truths.