ch 8b- motor learning pt. 2 Flashcards
transfer of learning refers to
the influence of past learning on performance of that skill in a new context
Why is transfer of learning important?
-skills need to be performed in different environments
-rehabilitation
-assessing effectiveness of practice conditions
Factors that influence transfer of learning
–>Sequencing skills to be learned
(need to learn basic skills before more complex skills)
–>Instructional methods
(teach part of skill before practicing whole skill)
–>Fear, arousal, anxiety levels
(practice conditions are different than performance conditions; simulate performance conditions when practicing)
Positive transfer of learning
previous experience helps with learning a new skill
when does positive transfer of learning occur?
- Characteristics of both skills are similar
- Similar problem solving required
- Similar performance environments
Bilateral transfer
transfer of information that happens between two limbs
Bilateral transfer: why might it be easier to learn with one limb after we have learned it with the other first?
-learn to perform skill in a non-limb-specific way
-apply previously acquired knowledge of practice from one limb to the other limb
Negative transfer of learning
previous experience interferes with performance of a new skill
(ex. interference)
Why does negative transfer of learning occur?
-environmental context is similar but movement characteristics are different
(ex. forehand in tennis vs. forehand in badminton)
-difficulty mapping for a skill that has already developed in a certain way
-initial “cognitive confusion”
People with stroke usually walk…
asymmetrically because of impairment of one leg
-person is “limping”
How can the walking asymmetry be corrected using a split-belt treadmill?
-therapist would set the treadmill belt speeds to encourage the person to adapt their walking pattern (exaggerate the step length asymmetry)
-aftereffect= transfer to the overground (anywhere that is not a treadmill)
What does the experiment about split-belt treadmill walking conclude?
people can transfer learning on the split-belt treadmill to overground walking
What are some factors to consider (as a demonstrator) when teaching a new skill to a learner?
–> demonstrator should perform skill correctly
–> novices benefit from observing other novices
(can see mistakes, learn by problem solving)
–> demonstrating is best when novices must learn new invariant features; new pattern of coordination
Force field perturbation:
(example evidence of observational learning)
What was the task?
-centre-out movements towards 8 targets arranged in a circle
-reached with a mechanical joystick to targets
-a clockwise (CW) force was applied to the arm during an adaptation phase
Force field perturbation:
after familiarization with the task in a zero force field, what 3 groups were participants divided up into?
- CW observation= observed videos of someone using the CW force field; same as experiment
- No observation= no videos before having to adapt to the force field
- CCW force field adaptation= observed videos of someone using the CCW force field (opposite to the one they would have to adapt to)
What were the results of this observational learning force field perturbation experiment?
-CW observation group had improved performance compared to no observation/control group
-CCW observation group had a decreased performance compared to no observation/control group
What do the results of the observational learning force field perturbation experiment suggest?
That participants can acquire a neural representation of a new force environment through observational learning
Describe the optimal timing of demonstrating a motor skill to a learner
demonstrate BEFORE a learner begins practicing and
demonstrate PERIODICALLY (interspersed) during the learners practice
Describe how mirror neurons are involved in movements and learning movements
mirror neurons discharge during active movements AND when observing other people do the same movement
Neural basis for observational learning
mirror neuron system of the brain
Mirror neurons- how do they change for different activities?
The discharge activity changes when the activity is different
Monkey grasps object to eat and monkey watches human grasp object to eat
- what is the discharge activity of mirror neurons
the same
Monkey grasps object to eat and monkey grasps object to place
-discharge activity of mirror neurons
different
(different actions)
Monkey grasps object to place, monkey watched human grasp object to eat
-discharge activity of mirror neurons
different
(different actions)
Mirror neurons also encode the
spatial position of an observed action
Some neurons encode observed actions made in – and – space
peri-personal space= reachable space
extra-personal space= can’t reach without moving your body
What are some factors to consider for motor learning when giving verbal instructions?
-amount of info given should consider the learner’s attention capacity and skill level
-can direct a learner to certain aspects of the motor skill (and influence how they practice)
-too much info= bad
Discovery learning
have to learn what to do rather than receiving verbal instructions
Example of discovery learning:
ski-slalom simulator study
Group given detailed instruction= worse performance
Group not given instruction= better performance (discovery learning)
Feedback related to motor learning
2 categories
- Task-intrinsic (sensory)
- Augmented feedback
Task-intrinsic feedback/sensory feedback
Visual, somatosensory, vestibular, auditory
Augmented feedback (or task-extrinsic feedback))
Knowledge of results (KR)
Knowledge of performance (KP)
Knowledge of Results
information about the outcome of performing a skill or about achieving the goal of the performance
Ex. was the goal achieved? “yes” or “no”
Knowledge of Performance
Information about the movement characteristics that led to the performance outcome
Ex. video replay of game footage or verbal info
Give an example of what a physical therapist may say to provide KR and KP info to a patient with regards to their walking performance
KR= “you walked 5m more than yesterday”
KP= “you need to bend your kneed more when you walk”
What is the role of augmented feedback?
to facilitate the success of the motor skill, allow the learner to determine if they are performing appropriately, motivate the learner to continue to reach goal
What kind of situation would not require augmented feedback?
- When a learner already has sensory feedback about the outcome of the movement (can see if the basketball went in the hoop)
- When the learner depends on KP and KR too much
When is KR beneficial?
-to confirm assessments of task-intrinsic (sensory) feedback
-when learner can’t determine outcome (ex. can’t see result)
-motivation
-when you want learners to problem solve through trial and error
When is KP beneficial?
-motor skills require specific movement characteristics
-highly coordinated movement components of a skill need to be improved
-when KR is redundant w sensory feedback (vision is used to determine that target was missed but no info on how to correct the error)
Performing a one hand basketball shot w non-dominant hand. What will get the best results:
-verbal KP
-verbal encouragement
verbal KP
-info about errors in stance and limb movement will improve performance
When is augmented feedback essential?
-when sensory feedback is not available
-injury or disease that makes sensory feedback less reliable
-when person can’t use sensory feedback because they lack experience with skill/can’t identify errors
What should augmented feedback consist of?
-errors/correct
-qualititive/quanitative
- Providing info about errors is more effective than info about correct components
- Qualitative info (non numerical) is better in the early stages of learning; easier to make approximations than to focus on fine details
- Quantitative info is better overall
- No erroneous feedback
Types of KP (4)
- Verbal KP
- Video recording
- Movement kinematics
- Biofeedback
Verbal KP
Descriptive KP= describes the error the performer has made
Prescriptive KP= describes error AND gives corrections
–> better for beginners
Video recordings
video + verbal KP improves performance compared to just KP alone
Movement kinematics
Using a computer software to display kinematic details (ex. motion capture camera) of motor skill
Biofeedback
record physiological signals and show it to learner (ex. muscle activity)
Ex. stroke and balance training using COM and COP
Should augmented feedback be provided during the performance of the motor skill of at the end of the skill?
answer is unclear
Concurrent augmented feedback
= feedback provided while person is performing a skill
- most effective when sensory feedback is difficult to use
What is the problem with concurrent augmented feedback?
(negative learning effect)
Learners may substitute the information from augmented feedback for the sensory feedback they should be using
–> result= augmented feedback is learned INSTEAD of the motor skill
Terminal augmented feedback
=feedback provided AFTER the motor skill is complete
- effective for almost any motor skill
What are the two intervals to consider when providing terminal augmented feedback?
- KR-delay interval
- Post-KR interval
KR-delay interval
time interval between completion of movement and presentation of augmented feedback
Post-KR interval
time interval between the presentation of augmented feedback and beginning of next trial
Ideal time interval for the length of the post-KR interval required for the KR to benefit the performance depends on..
the motor skill in question
Activity
something other than practicing the skill
Does the activity performed during the KR-delay interval or post-KR interval influence learning?
NO!!!!
only influences learning if the activity uses the same learning processes
What do you need to make sure about the activity performed during the KR-delay interval or post-KR interval?
need to make sure the activity will not cause interference and prevent consolidation of learning
(+)
activity during the interval may improve learning
(-)
activity during the interval may decrease learning
(Ø)
activity during the interval may have no effect on learning
subjective performance evaluation
critiquing your own performance during the KR-delay period
-facilitates learning
-learner should process what they did before getting feedback
How to reduce the frequency of augmented feedback
(3 ways)
- Performance based bandwidths
= feedback only provided if error is outside a certain bandwidth
–> Ex. only if puck missed net by more than 0.5m - Self-selected frequency
= give feedback when learner asks for it - Summary augmented feedback
= give feedback on multiple trials after a certain number of trials
should augmented feedback be given on 100% of practice trials?
NO
Reward can be…
Intrinsic or Extrinsic
Intrinsic reward
-something the learner appreciates; being accurate/achieving goal
-may occur without augmented feedback
Extrinsic reward
related to monetary (money?) gain or loss
Reinforcement learning is based on
the selection of actions that an individual predicts will result in a greater reward/smaller punishment
Exploit and explore concept of (reinforcement) learning
person must exploit what they already know to get a reward and explore to improve future action selections
How can reinforcement learning lead to adherence to compensatory movement patterns?
learn through adaptation, may or may not be optimal
Ex. person who can’t extend arm at elbow learns to reach by bending trunk to prevent a reaching error
–> if this strategy leads to goal, it will be reinforced
Adaptation
(reaching example)
the ability to make the correct directional adjustment of the trunk to prevent a reaching error
Habit
(reaching example)
if the (adapted) reaching strategy is used even after extension at the elbow has recovered
Does monetary reward/punishment influence learning?
YES
influences motor skill learning and sensorimotor adaptation
Variable or constant practice:
Which results in greater retention and transfer test performance?
Variable practice
What do theories of motor skill learning and motor control emphasize?
Variability
Example of how theories (2) of motor skill learning emphasize variability
- Gentile’s model= experience variations to learn regulatory features of the environment and skill
- Schmidt’s schema theory= generate more outcomes from a range of parameters means more spread of data and possibly stronger relationship
3 ways to organize a variable practice schedule?
- Blocked
- Serial
- Random
Contextual interference
interference that occurs when performing many different skills or variations of the same skill in a practice session
Contextual interference effect
the learning benefit after practicing multiple skills with a high contextual interference schedule rather than practicing the motor skills with a low contextual interference schedule
High contextual interference
What kind of practice?
Random practice
Low contextual interference
What kind of practice?
Blocked practice
In between high and low contextual interference
What kind of practice?
Serial practice
Blocked practice schedule example
-30 min practice “blocks” over 6 days
-all overhand throws
Random practice schedule example
-30 min over 6 days broken down in to 5min chunks of random throws (overhand, underhand, sidearm)
-no pattern
Serial practice schedule example
-30 min over 6 days broken down into 5 min chunks of ordered throws
-pattern
High contextual interference/increased practice variability:
how does it affect learning
Makes it harder to initially learn something but shows better learning in the long term
Blocked vs. random practice (example study of badminton players) which was better for learning
Random practice was better for learning (performed better on retention and transfer tests)
Why is contextual interference beneficial?
-random practice= use more strategies, enhance memory of skill, problem solve, adjust motor plan for each variation
-“discovery learning”
Practice specificity
practice situations similar to the transfer test characteristics will lead to better performance
When these 3 characteristics are similar, they facilitate learning
- Source of sensory info
-ex. if vision available during practice, must be available during test - Performance context characteristics/environment
-ex. home field advantage - Cognitive processing characteristics
-ex. similar problem solving characteristics; practice same skills you will perform in test
Practice variability relates to
the movement characteristics of the skill learned
What is the best way to practice a skill?
Keep the context similar to test conditions but practice variations in the motor skill
Should you practice a skill whole or in parts?
Depends on complexity and organization of the motor skill
Complexity
-number of component parts/movements in skill
-more complex skills= more component parts and more attention and information processing
-NOT the same as difficulty
A motor skill can be complex but
easy to perform
Organization
=relationship between component parts/movements of a motor skill
-high level of organization= jump shot in basketball
-low level of organization
High level of organization
spatial and temporal aspects of a motor skill’s component parts are important
Ex. jump shot in basketball; sequence is important
Low level of organization
one component doesn’t really depend on the timing of the other part
Ex. Dance routine where a person jumps on one part of the floor, runs to another part and jumps again
Whole practice
use when a skill is low in complexity and high in organization
Ex. dart throwing, golf putting
Part practice
use when a skill is higher in complexity and lower in organization
Ex. shifting gears on a car
4 approaches for teaching a learner using the part-practice method
- Fractionization
- Segmentation
- Attention focus
- Simplification
Fractionization
-related to which coordination skills?
-involves?
-related to asymmetric coordination skills
-involves practicing the arms or legs separately before practicing with them together
(assuming the motor skill uses both arms and legs)
Segmentation involves
-involves practicing the initial component of a skill by itself, then together with the next part, and so on
Segmentation is known as
the progressive part method
Attention focus
a practice strategy to direct attention to a specific component part of the motor skill while practicing the whole skill
Simplification involves
reducing the difficulty of a specific component of a motor skill
Simplification:
what are 6 things you can do to reduce skill difficulty?
- Reduce object difficulty (if skill involves object)
Ex. use bean bags to juggle before torches on fire - Reduce attention demand
Ex. using devices such as a body-weight supported treadmill so the individual can focus on the task without worrying about falling - Reduce speed of movement
- Add auditory cues
Ex. use cues to specify the rhythm of the task - Sequencing skill progression
Ex. practice variations of the skill from easy –> hard;
batters hitting from a tee, diff tee heights, pitching machine, and then to a real pitcher - Use simulators and virtual reality
Ex. practice navigating in a complex environment without risk of injury
Massed practice
fewer practice sessions but more practice within each session
Distributed practice
same amount of practice but spread across days
