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207 > ch 8b- motor learning pt. 2 > Flashcards

ch 8b- motor learning pt. 2 Flashcards

1
Q

transfer of learning refers to

A

the influence of past learning on performance of that skill in a new context

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2
Q

Why is transfer of learning important?

A

-skills need to be performed in different environments
-rehabilitation
-assessing effectiveness of practice conditions

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3
Q

Factors that influence transfer of learning

A

–>Sequencing skills to be learned
(need to learn basic skills before more complex skills)
–>Instructional methods
(teach part of skill before practicing whole skill)
–>Fear, arousal, anxiety levels
(practice conditions are different than performance conditions; simulate performance conditions when practicing)

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4
Q

Positive transfer of learning

A

previous experience helps with learning a new skill

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5
Q

when does positive transfer of learning occur?

A
  • Characteristics of both skills are similar
  • Similar problem solving required
  • Similar performance environments
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6
Q

Bilateral transfer

A

transfer of information that happens between two limbs

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7
Q

Bilateral transfer: why might it be easier to learn with one limb after we have learned it with the other first?

A

-learn to perform skill in a non-limb-specific way
-apply previously acquired knowledge of practice from one limb to the other limb

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8
Q

Negative transfer of learning

A

previous experience interferes with performance of a new skill
(ex. interference)

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9
Q

Why does negative transfer of learning occur?

A

-environmental context is similar but movement characteristics are different
(ex. forehand in tennis vs. forehand in badminton)
-difficulty mapping for a skill that has already developed in a certain way
-initial “cognitive confusion”

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10
Q

People with stroke usually walk…

A

asymmetrically because of impairment of one leg
-person is “limping”

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11
Q

How can the walking asymmetry be corrected using a split-belt treadmill?

A

-therapist would set the treadmill belt speeds to encourage the person to adapt their walking pattern (exaggerate the step length asymmetry)
-aftereffect= transfer to the overground (anywhere that is not a treadmill)

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12
Q

What does the experiment about split-belt treadmill walking conclude?

A

people can transfer learning on the split-belt treadmill to overground walking

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13
Q

What are some factors to consider (as a demonstrator) when teaching a new skill to a learner?

A

–> demonstrator should perform skill correctly
–> novices benefit from observing other novices
(can see mistakes, learn by problem solving)
–> demonstrating is best when novices must learn new invariant features; new pattern of coordination

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14
Q

Force field perturbation:
(example evidence of observational learning)
What was the task?

A

-centre-out movements towards 8 targets arranged in a circle
-reached with a mechanical joystick to targets
-a clockwise (CW) force was applied to the arm during an adaptation phase

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15
Q

Force field perturbation:
after familiarization with the task in a zero force field, what 3 groups were participants divided up into?

A
  1. CW observation= observed videos of someone using the CW force field; same as experiment
  2. No observation= no videos before having to adapt to the force field
  3. CCW force field adaptation= observed videos of someone using the CCW force field (opposite to the one they would have to adapt to)
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16
Q

What were the results of this observational learning force field perturbation experiment?

A

-CW observation group had improved performance compared to no observation/control group
-CCW observation group had a decreased performance compared to no observation/control group

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17
Q

What do the results of the observational learning force field perturbation experiment suggest?

A

That participants can acquire a neural representation of a new force environment through observational learning

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18
Q

Describe the optimal timing of demonstrating a motor skill to a learner

A

demonstrate BEFORE a learner begins practicing and
demonstrate PERIODICALLY (interspersed) during the learners practice

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19
Q

Describe how mirror neurons are involved in movements and learning movements

A

mirror neurons discharge during active movements AND when observing other people do the same movement

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20
Q

Neural basis for observational learning

A

mirror neuron system of the brain

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21
Q

Mirror neurons- how do they change for different activities?

A

The discharge activity changes when the activity is different

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22
Q

Monkey grasps object to eat and monkey watches human grasp object to eat
- what is the discharge activity of mirror neurons

A

the same

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23
Q

Monkey grasps object to eat and monkey grasps object to place
-discharge activity of mirror neurons

A

different
(different actions)

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24
Q

Monkey grasps object to place, monkey watched human grasp object to eat
-discharge activity of mirror neurons

A

different
(different actions)

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25
Q

Mirror neurons also encode the

A

spatial position of an observed action

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26
Q

Some neurons encode observed actions made in – and – space

A

peri-personal space= reachable space
extra-personal space= can’t reach without moving your body

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27
Q

What are some factors to consider for motor learning when giving verbal instructions?

A

-amount of info given should consider the learner’s attention capacity and skill level
-can direct a learner to certain aspects of the motor skill (and influence how they practice)
-too much info= bad

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28
Q

Discovery learning

A

have to learn what to do rather than receiving verbal instructions

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29
Q

Example of discovery learning:
ski-slalom simulator study

A

Group given detailed instruction= worse performance
Group not given instruction= better performance (discovery learning)

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30
Q

Feedback related to motor learning
2 categories

A
  1. Task-intrinsic (sensory)
  2. Augmented feedback
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31
Q

Task-intrinsic feedback/sensory feedback

A

Visual, somatosensory, vestibular, auditory

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32
Q

Augmented feedback (or task-extrinsic feedback))

A

Knowledge of results (KR)
Knowledge of performance (KP)

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33
Q

Knowledge of Results

A

information about the outcome of performing a skill or about achieving the goal of the performance
Ex. was the goal achieved? “yes” or “no”

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34
Q

Knowledge of Performance

A

Information about the movement characteristics that led to the performance outcome
Ex. video replay of game footage or verbal info

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35
Q

Give an example of what a physical therapist may say to provide KR and KP info to a patient with regards to their walking performance

A

KR= “you walked 5m more than yesterday”
KP= “you need to bend your kneed more when you walk”

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36
Q

What is the role of augmented feedback?

A

to facilitate the success of the motor skill, allow the learner to determine if they are performing appropriately, motivate the learner to continue to reach goal

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37
Q

What kind of situation would not require augmented feedback?

A
  • When a learner already has sensory feedback about the outcome of the movement (can see if the basketball went in the hoop)
  • When the learner depends on KP and KR too much
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38
Q

When is KR beneficial?

A

-to confirm assessments of task-intrinsic (sensory) feedback
-when learner can’t determine outcome (ex. can’t see result)
-motivation
-when you want learners to problem solve through trial and error

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39
Q

When is KP beneficial?

A

-motor skills require specific movement characteristics
-highly coordinated movement components of a skill need to be improved
-when KR is redundant w sensory feedback (vision is used to determine that target was missed but no info on how to correct the error)

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40
Q

Performing a one hand basketball shot w non-dominant hand. What will get the best results:
-verbal KP
-verbal encouragement

A

verbal KP
-info about errors in stance and limb movement will improve performance

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41
Q

When is augmented feedback essential?

A

-when sensory feedback is not available
-injury or disease that makes sensory feedback less reliable
-when person can’t use sensory feedback because they lack experience with skill/can’t identify errors

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42
Q

What should augmented feedback consist of?
-errors/correct
-qualititive/quanitative

A
  • Providing info about errors is more effective than info about correct components
  • Qualitative info (non numerical) is better in the early stages of learning; easier to make approximations than to focus on fine details
  • Quantitative info is better overall
  • No erroneous feedback
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43
Q

Types of KP (4)

A
  1. Verbal KP
  2. Video recording
  3. Movement kinematics
  4. Biofeedback
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44
Q

Verbal KP

A

Descriptive KP= describes the error the performer has made
Prescriptive KP= describes error AND gives corrections
–> better for beginners

45
Q

Video recordings

A

video + verbal KP improves performance compared to just KP alone

46
Q

Movement kinematics

A

Using a computer software to display kinematic details (ex. motion capture camera) of motor skill

47
Q

Biofeedback

A

record physiological signals and show it to learner (ex. muscle activity)
Ex. stroke and balance training using COM and COP

48
Q

Should augmented feedback be provided during the performance of the motor skill of at the end of the skill?

A

answer is unclear

49
Q

Concurrent augmented feedback

A

= feedback provided while person is performing a skill
- most effective when sensory feedback is difficult to use

50
Q

What is the problem with concurrent augmented feedback?
(negative learning effect)

A

Learners may substitute the information from augmented feedback for the sensory feedback they should be using
–> result= augmented feedback is learned INSTEAD of the motor skill

51
Q

Terminal augmented feedback

A

=feedback provided AFTER the motor skill is complete
- effective for almost any motor skill

52
Q

What are the two intervals to consider when providing terminal augmented feedback?

A
  1. KR-delay interval
  2. Post-KR interval
53
Q

KR-delay interval

A

time interval between completion of movement and presentation of augmented feedback

54
Q

Post-KR interval

A

time interval between the presentation of augmented feedback and beginning of next trial

55
Q

Ideal time interval for the length of the post-KR interval required for the KR to benefit the performance depends on..

A

the motor skill in question

56
Q

Activity

A

something other than practicing the skill

57
Q

Does the activity performed during the KR-delay interval or post-KR interval influence learning?

A

NO!!!!
only influences learning if the activity uses the same learning processes

58
Q

What do you need to make sure about the activity performed during the KR-delay interval or post-KR interval?

A

need to make sure the activity will not cause interference and prevent consolidation of learning

59
Q

(+)

A

activity during the interval may improve learning

60
Q

(-)

A

activity during the interval may decrease learning

61
Q

(Ø)

A

activity during the interval may have no effect on learning

62
Q

subjective performance evaluation

A

critiquing your own performance during the KR-delay period
-facilitates learning
-learner should process what they did before getting feedback

63
Q

How to reduce the frequency of augmented feedback
(3 ways)

A
  1. Performance based bandwidths
    = feedback only provided if error is outside a certain bandwidth
    –> Ex. only if puck missed net by more than 0.5m
  2. Self-selected frequency
    = give feedback when learner asks for it
  3. Summary augmented feedback
    = give feedback on multiple trials after a certain number of trials
64
Q

should augmented feedback be given on 100% of practice trials?

A

NO

65
Q

Reward can be…

A

Intrinsic or Extrinsic

66
Q

Intrinsic reward

A

-something the learner appreciates; being accurate/achieving goal
-may occur without augmented feedback

67
Q

Extrinsic reward

A

related to monetary (money?) gain or loss

68
Q

Reinforcement learning is based on

A

the selection of actions that an individual predicts will result in a greater reward/smaller punishment

69
Q

Exploit and explore concept of (reinforcement) learning

A

person must exploit what they already know to get a reward and explore to improve future action selections

70
Q

How can reinforcement learning lead to adherence to compensatory movement patterns?

A

learn through adaptation, may or may not be optimal
Ex. person who can’t extend arm at elbow learns to reach by bending trunk to prevent a reaching error
–> if this strategy leads to goal, it will be reinforced

71
Q

Adaptation
(reaching example)

A

the ability to make the correct directional adjustment of the trunk to prevent a reaching error

72
Q

Habit
(reaching example)

A

if the (adapted) reaching strategy is used even after extension at the elbow has recovered

73
Q

Does monetary reward/punishment influence learning?

A

YES
influences motor skill learning and sensorimotor adaptation

74
Q

Variable or constant practice:
Which results in greater retention and transfer test performance?

A

Variable practice

75
Q

What do theories of motor skill learning and motor control emphasize?

A

Variability

76
Q

Example of how theories (2) of motor skill learning emphasize variability

A
  1. Gentile’s model= experience variations to learn regulatory features of the environment and skill
  2. Schmidt’s schema theory= generate more outcomes from a range of parameters means more spread of data and possibly stronger relationship
77
Q

3 ways to organize a variable practice schedule?

A
  1. Blocked
  2. Serial
  3. Random
78
Q

Contextual interference

A

interference that occurs when performing many different skills or variations of the same skill in a practice session

79
Q

Contextual interference effect

A

the learning benefit after practicing multiple skills with a high contextual interference schedule rather than practicing the motor skills with a low contextual interference schedule

80
Q

High contextual interference
What kind of practice?

A

Random practice

81
Q

Low contextual interference
What kind of practice?

A

Blocked practice

82
Q

In between high and low contextual interference
What kind of practice?

A

Serial practice

83
Q

Blocked practice schedule example

A

-30 min practice “blocks” over 6 days
-all overhand throws

84
Q

Random practice schedule example

A

-30 min over 6 days broken down in to 5min chunks of random throws (overhand, underhand, sidearm)
-no pattern

85
Q

Serial practice schedule example

A

-30 min over 6 days broken down into 5 min chunks of ordered throws
-pattern

86
Q

High contextual interference/increased practice variability:
how does it affect learning

A

Makes it harder to initially learn something but shows better learning in the long term

87
Q

Blocked vs. random practice (example study of badminton players) which was better for learning

A

Random practice was better for learning (performed better on retention and transfer tests)

88
Q

Why is contextual interference beneficial?

A

-random practice= use more strategies, enhance memory of skill, problem solve, adjust motor plan for each variation
-“discovery learning”

89
Q

Practice specificity

A

practice situations similar to the transfer test characteristics will lead to better performance

90
Q

When these 3 characteristics are similar, they facilitate learning

A
  1. Source of sensory info
    -ex. if vision available during practice, must be available during test
  2. Performance context characteristics/environment
    -ex. home field advantage
  3. Cognitive processing characteristics
    -ex. similar problem solving characteristics; practice same skills you will perform in test
91
Q

Practice variability relates to

A

the movement characteristics of the skill learned

92
Q

What is the best way to practice a skill?

A

Keep the context similar to test conditions but practice variations in the motor skill

93
Q

Should you practice a skill whole or in parts?

A

Depends on complexity and organization of the motor skill

94
Q

Complexity

A

-number of component parts/movements in skill
-more complex skills= more component parts and more attention and information processing
-NOT the same as difficulty

95
Q

A motor skill can be complex but

A

easy to perform

96
Q

Organization

A

=relationship between component parts/movements of a motor skill
-high level of organization= jump shot in basketball
-low level of organization

97
Q

High level of organization

A

spatial and temporal aspects of a motor skill’s component parts are important
Ex. jump shot in basketball; sequence is important

98
Q

Low level of organization

A

one component doesn’t really depend on the timing of the other part
Ex. Dance routine where a person jumps on one part of the floor, runs to another part and jumps again

99
Q

Whole practice

A

use when a skill is low in complexity and high in organization
Ex. dart throwing, golf putting

100
Q

Part practice

A

use when a skill is higher in complexity and lower in organization
Ex. shifting gears on a car

101
Q

4 approaches for teaching a learner using the part-practice method

A
  1. Fractionization
  2. Segmentation
  3. Attention focus
  4. Simplification
102
Q

Fractionization
-related to which coordination skills?
-involves?

A

-related to asymmetric coordination skills
-involves practicing the arms or legs separately before practicing with them together
(assuming the motor skill uses both arms and legs)

103
Q

Segmentation involves

A

-involves practicing the initial component of a skill by itself, then together with the next part, and so on

104
Q

Segmentation is known as

A

the progressive part method

105
Q

Attention focus

A

a practice strategy to direct attention to a specific component part of the motor skill while practicing the whole skill

106
Q

Simplification involves

A

reducing the difficulty of a specific component of a motor skill

107
Q

Simplification:
what are 6 things you can do to reduce skill difficulty?

A
  1. Reduce object difficulty (if skill involves object)
    Ex. use bean bags to juggle before torches on fire
  2. Reduce attention demand
    Ex. using devices such as a body-weight supported treadmill so the individual can focus on the task without worrying about falling
  3. Reduce speed of movement
  4. Add auditory cues
    Ex. use cues to specify the rhythm of the task
  5. Sequencing skill progression
    Ex. practice variations of the skill from easy –> hard;
    batters hitting from a tee, diff tee heights, pitching machine, and then to a real pitcher
  6. Use simulators and virtual reality
    Ex. practice navigating in a complex environment without risk of injury
108
Q

Massed practice

A

fewer practice sessions but more practice within each session

109
Q

Distributed practice

A

same amount of practice but spread across days

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