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Biology 2 > Ch. 8.1 and 8.2: DNA Replication 8.3 Mutations > Flashcards

Ch. 8.1 and 8.2: DNA Replication 8.3 Mutations Flashcards

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1
Q

What are nucleic acids made up of?

A

Nucleotides

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2
Q

What are nucleotides made up of?

A

Made up of three parts and those are:
1. Five-carbon sugar(ribose or deoxyribose)
2. Phosphate group
3. Organic, nitrogen containing-base

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3
Q

What are five nucleotides?

A

adenine, A; guanine, G; cytosine, C; thymine, T; and uracil, U

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4
Q

Which one of five nucleotides only found in RNA?

A

Uracil, U

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5
Q

What do DNA and RNA stand for?

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)

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6
Q

What are three differences between DNA and RNA?

A
  1. DNA has thymine (T); RNA has uracil (U)
  2. DNA is double-stranded; RNA is single-stranded
  3. DNA has deoxyribose; RNA has ribose
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7
Q

Name two possible base pairs for DNA

A
  1. Adenosine (A) pairs with thymine (T)
  2. Cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G)
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8
Q

What is hydrogen bond?

A

bond holding a base pair together

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9
Q

What does sugar-phosphate backbone consist of?

A

phosphodiester bonds

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10
Q

How does hydrogen bond help DNA to function?

A

Hydrogen bonds of base pairs can be broken to unzip DNA so that information can be copied

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11
Q

How many copies does DNA contain?

A

Two copies

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12
Q

What does having two copies mean?

A

Information can be accurately copied and passed to next generation

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13
Q

What are purines?

A

Large bases of nucleotide that has double ring structure: adenine and guanine

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14
Q

What are pyrimidlines?

A

Small bases of nucleotide that has single ring structure: cytosine and thymine

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15
Q

What amount of each purines and pyrimidlines do DNA molecules have?

A

Equal amounts

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16
Q

What does Chargaff rule suggest?

A

Amount of A always equals amount of T, amount of C always equals amount of G

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17
Q

How are carbon on ribose and deoxyribose numbered?

A

They are numbered 1 to 5

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18
Q

What is ATP in DNA structure?

A

ATP is nucleoside triphophate that is produced in all cells and primary source of energy for all cells to function

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19
Q

What else can be used for energy?

A

GTP

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20
Q

What does diet do in DNA structure?

A

Diet is source of nucleoside in our cells that can be made into nucleotide for DNA replication or used for transcription for RNA molecules

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21
Q

What do enzymes do in digestive tract?

A

Enzymes in digestive tract break down nucletic acids into individual nucleosides

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22
Q

What is telomere?

A

region of repetitive DNA at end of every chromosome

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23
Q

What do telomers do?

A

Telomeres protect ends of chromosome from deterioration

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24
Q

When do telomeres shorten and why does it happen?

A

telomere regions shorten during DNA replication because there is gap left after removal of first 5 end primer

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25
Q

Why do people age?

A

Because telomeres get shorter after every cell division

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26
Q

When do telomeres shorten faster?

A

When degenerative like cancer and Alzheimer occurs

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27
Q

What can cause increased cell division?

A

Chroninc inflammation such as stress

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28
Q

Do prokaryotes have telomeres?

A

No, because they have circular DNA

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29
Q

What is telomerase?

A

Enzyme found in stem cells and germ cells which replace telomere sequences

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30
Q

What cells produce telomerase?

A

Cancer cells produce them and that is why they are immortal

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31
Q

What is average length of single chromosome?

A

2 inches

32
Q

What is total length of DNA per cell?

A

About 2.3 meters

33
Q

What is the relationship between two strands of DNA that form double helix DNA molecule?

A

They are complementary to each other and each chain is mirror to each other

34
Q

How strong is hydrogen bond?

A

They hold bases together and are weak bonds, therefore, it is easy to be seprated

35
Q

What is complemantary strand of this DNA sequence 5′ GGTACCAGT 3’?

A

3’CCATGGTCA5’

36
Q

What are 1-5 steps of DNA replication?

A
  1. Replication begins at point of origin; in eukaryotes there are
    many points of origin
  2. Enzyme called helicase unwinds the DNA
  3. Section where DNA is unwound is called replication fork
  4. Single-strand binding proteins stabilize separated strands of DNA
  5. DNA polymerase moves along each strand of unwound DNA and adds correct complementary nucleotides
37
Q

What are 6-8 steps of DNA replication?

A
  1. DNA polymerase can only add new nucleotides to existing strand of DNA.
  2. Therefore, primase adds small fragment of RNA (RNA primer) to initially separated DNA
  3. RNA primer is complementary to DNA, and this is later replaced with DNA
38
Q

What are 9-11 steps of DNA replication?

A
  1. Since two DNA strands are antiparallel, one strand is oriented as
    5 to 3 and other strand is oriented as 3 to 5
  2. Polymerase can only add new nucleotides to 3 end of the new′
    DNA strand; this is called leading strand
  3. Opposite strand is called lagging strand
39
Q

What are 12-15 steps of DNA replication?

A
  1. Lagging strand must be replicated in discontinuous segments called Okazaki fragments
  2. Each segment of lagging strand must begin with RNA primer,
    then polymerase can add nucleotides in the 5 to 3 direction (This is direction of new strand being formed)
  3. Then each RNA primer is removed and replaced with DNA
  4. Enzyme that covalently links new segments of DNA after RNA primer is removed is DNA ligase—forms phosphodiester bonds
40
Q

What is topoisomerase?

A

Enzyme that is used to relieve supercoils in eukaryotic DNA as well as in prokaryotes that have circular DNA

41
Q

How is topoisomerase used in viruses?

A

used to integrate viral DNA into genome of cell it is infecting

42
Q

How many genes do people have for DNA enzyme repairs?

A

130 genes

43
Q

What is proofreading?

A

Repairs enzymes comparing new DNA strand with original DNA strand and fixing any incorrect nucleotide

44
Q

Does proofreading prevent DNA mutations completely?

A

No

45
Q

What happens if DNA mutations occur?

A
  1. Apoptosis (programmed cell death)
  2. Immune cells that kill cancers
  3. Disease
46
Q

What are ways that alter genetic message encoded in DNA?

A

Point mutations and recombination mutations

47
Q

What is point mutation?

A

These result from errors in replication, they can involve substitutions, additions, or deletions of nucleotides

48
Q

What is recombination mutation?

A

These cause change in position of all or part of gene

49
Q

In what chances will base pairs become mismatch during replication

A

one in every 100000 to 1 million chances

50
Q

What does mismatch cause?

A

mismatch causes polymerase to pause, and then incorrect base pair enters exonuclease section of polymerase enzyme; it is proofreading

51
Q

What else corrects DNA mutation?

A

Repair enzymes

52
Q

What is mutagen?

A

substance that mutates DNA

53
Q

What is carcinogen

A

substance that mutates DNA and also causes cancer

54
Q

What can mutations alter and affect?

A

Mutations can alter genetic message and affect protein synthesis

55
Q

How do mutations occur?

A

Mutations occur randomly in cell’s DNA therefore they are mostly detrimental

56
Q

In what cell types can DNA mutations occur?

A

Germ cells and somatic cells

57
Q

What would happen if DNA mutations occur in germ cells?

A

These mutations will be passed to future generations and they are important for evolutionary change

58
Q

What would happen if DNA mutations occur in somatic cells?

A

These are not passed to future generations but are passed to all other somatic cells derived from them

59
Q

What are different types of DNA mutations?

A
  1. Substitution changes identity of base or bases
  2. Insertion adds base or bases
  3. Deletion removes base of bases
60
Q

What would be consequence of deletion or addition

A

frame-shift mutation results and these are extremely detrimental because final protein intended by message may be altered dramatically or it may not be made at all

61
Q

What are transposable elements (TEs)?

A

they are sequences of DNA that can move or transpose themselves within cell

62
Q

What is mechanism of transposition?

A

mechanism of transposition can be either “copy and paste” or “cut and paste”

63
Q

What kind of organisms contain TEs?

A

All living organisms contain transposable elements (also called transposons or jumping genes)

64
Q

In what area do TEs play role of?

A

TEs play significant role in phenotypic variation and evolution, but they can be detrimental to an organism

65
Q

What would happen if mutagen causes sugar-phosphate backbone to break?

A

cell will try to repair this by adding DNA fragment to another piece of DNA

66
Q

What would happen if cells add DNA fragment to another piece of DNA?

A

This can cause segments of DNA to be moved to entirely different chromosomes

67
Q

What are exons?

A

sequences in gene that code for mRNA that will
code for protein

68
Q

Are introns part of RNA sequence?

A

Introns are removed and do not become part of RNA sequence

69
Q

What are silent mutations?

A

Mutations in introns usually have no affect on protein

70
Q

What cells kill cancer cells?

A

Natural killer cells can kill cancer cells

71
Q

What is cystic fibrosis?

A

one mismatch base in gene that codes for chloride channels

72
Q

What is Huntington’s disease?

A

insertion of multiple CAG repeats in gene on chromosome 4

73
Q

What is Sickle cell anemia?

A

one mismatch in hemoglobin gene

74
Q

What is cancer?

A

usually two or more mutations in genes that code for repair enzymes or in genes that affect cell cycle

75
Q

What is Phenylketonuria (PKU)?

A

point mutation in liver enzyme gene, which causes brain damage.
Babies are tested at birth for presence of enzyme that breaks down phenylalanine into tyrosine (amino acids)

76
Q

What is Nonpolyposis colorectal cancer?

A

autosomal, dominant, repeated CA mutation in DNA repair enzyme gene, non-functional repair protein

77
Q

How do we acquire DNA mutations?

A
  1. Mistakes during DNA replication
  2. Transposition
  3. Inherited mutations (approximately 10% of all diseases)
  4. Mutagens and carcinogens (most common causes of mutation)
  5. Viruses

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