Ch 8: The Nervous and Endocrine Systems (Princeton Review) Flashcards
In regard to the patellar tendon reflex, the sensory neuron that detects stretch synapse is not only with a motor neuron for the quadriceps but also with an __________ ___________.
inhibitory interneuron
p. 287
An interneuron is the simplest example of the integrative role of the nervous system. Concurrent relaxation of the hamstring and contraction of the quadriceps is an example of ___________ __________.
reciprocal inhibition
Discuss the etymology of the terms ‘epinephrine’ and ‘adrenaline’.
In Greek, “epi” means upon or on top of, “nephr” refers to the kidneys, thus epinephrine is “the hormone secreted by the gland on top of the kidney”.
The term adrenaline comes from Latin; “ad” means upon, and “renal” refers to the kidney.
What is the result of parasympathetic stimulation of the genitals?
erection/ lubrication
p. 289
White matter in the brain is called a _____. White matter in the spinal cord is called a _____ or a ______, and white matter in the PNS is called a _____.
tract
tract or a column
nerve
p. 289
Gray matter deep in the brain is called a _______, gray matter on the surface of the brain is called ______, gray matter in the spinal cord is called a ______, and gray matter in the PNS is a _______.
nucleus
cortex
horn
ganglion
p. 289
What is the results of sympathetic stimulation of the urinary system?
Relaxation of the bladder and contraction of the urethral sphincter (which collectively inhibits urination).
p. 289
The dorsal root ganglion are protected within the vertebral column but are outside the meninges and thus outside the ___.
There is a pair of dorsal root ganglia for every _______ of the spinal cord.
CNS
segment
All somatic motor neurons innervate ________ muscle cells, use _______ as their neurotransmitter, and have their cell bodies in the _________ or the _______ portion of the spinal cord.
skeletal
acetylcholine
brainstem
ventral
p. 294
Nicotinic receptors will always bind to ________ while adrenergic receptors will only bind to __________.
acetylcholine
catecholamines
Upper motor neuron signs include:
muscle hypertrophy, hyperreflexia, hypertonia, and clonus
Type II muscle cells, also known as fast-twitch muscle fibers, will always produce a ________ force of contraction than type I muscle cells.
stronger
What are the signs of a lower motor neuron disease?
muscle atrophy, weakness, fasciculation, fibrillation, hypotonia, and hyporeflexia
Action potentials travel faster through myelinated axons, but do they travel faster through thick axons or thin axons?
THICK axons
What sensory information is detected by mechanoreceptors?
vibration, touch, and position (proprioception)
Not included are temperature and pain. These are the 5 types of somatosensation.
Smaller muscles have (smaller/larger) motor units, so that the control of the muscle is much more precise.
smaller
What are the components of a motor unit?
lower motor neuron and all skeletal muscle cells that it synapses on
The hindbrain includes the….
…medulla, pons, and cerebellum.
p. 290
The medulla regulates vital autonomic functions such as _____ ________ and digestive functions (including ________). Also, the respiratory ___________ centers are found here.
blood pressure
vomiting
rhythmicity
p. 290
What structures does the pons connect?
the brain stem and the cerebellum
p. 290
What is the function of the pons?
It controls some autonomic function and coordinates movement, and plays a role in balance and anti-gravity posture.
p. 290
The cerebellum is the integrating center where ______ _________ are coordinated. Both the cerebellum and the pons receive information from the vestibular apparatus in the inner ear, which monitors __________ and positive relative to gravity.
complex movements
acceleration
p. 290
The forebrain includes the __________ and the __________. The latter includes the ________ and ________.
diencephalon
telencephalon
thalamus
hypothalamus
p. 291
The thalamus contains relay and processing centers for _______ __________.
sensory information
p. 291
Generally speaking, the areas of the left and right hemispheres have the same functions. However, the left is generally responsible for ______, and the right is more concerned with _____-______ reasoning and _____.
speech
visual-spatial
music
p. 291
What does the word “cortex” mean?
outside layer
p. 291
What is the function of the frontal lobes?
to initiate all voluntary movement and are involved in complex reasoning skills and problem solving
`
p. 291
What is the function of the parietal lobes?
involvement in general sensations (such as a touch, temperature, pressure, vibration) and gustation (taste)
p. 291
What is the function of the temporal lobes?
to process auditory and olfactory sensation, and involvement in short-term memory, language comprehension, and emotion
p. 291
What is the function of the occipital lobes?
to process visual sensation
p. 291
The basal nuclei (aka “cerebral nuclei”, aka “basal ganglia”) broadly function in voluntary motor control and procedural learning r/t ______. The basal nuclei and cerebellum work together to process and coordinate movement initiated by the primary motor cortex; the basal nuclei are ________, while the cerebellum is ________.
habits
inhibitory
excitatory
p. 292
The limbic system is important in _______ and _______, and includes the _______, ________ _____ and the ________.
emotion and memory
amygdala, cingulate gyrus, and the hippocampus (ACGH)
p. 292
The sensory homunculus can be explained by saying that a particular small area of the cortex controls a particular body part. More cortex is devoted to some parts than other; for example more cortex is devoted to the ____ than to the ______ ___.
lips
entire leg
p. 294
All somatic SENSORY neurons have a long dendrite extending from a sensory receptor toward the soma, which is located just outside the CNS in a ______ ____ ________.
dorsal root ganglion
p. 294
In all somatic sensory neurons, the first synapse is in the ___.
CNS
All autonomic preganglionic neurons release _______ as their neurotransmitter.
All parasympathetic postganglionic neurons also release this neurotransmitter.
Nearly all sympathetic postganglionic neurons release ________ as their neurotransmitter.
acetylcholine
norepinephrine
p. 295
Where are the somas of preganglionic sympathetic neurons found?
What about the somas of preganglionic parasympathetic neurons?
in the thoracolumbar spinal cord
In the brainstem and sacral spinal cord (craniosacral)
p. 297
In the sympathetic nervous system, the preganglionic axon is ____, while the postganglionic axon is ____. Ganglia are also close to the ___ and far from the ___.
short
long
cord
target
p. 297
In the parasympathetic nervous system, the preganglionic axon is ____, while the postganglionic axon is ____. Ganglia are also far from the ____ and close to the ____.
long
short
cord
target
p. 297
Sensory receptors that detect stimuli from the outside world are __________ and receptors that respond to internal stimuli are __________.
exteroceptors
interoceptors
In discussing sensory receptors in the body, what is adaptation?
a decrease in firing frequency when the intensity of a stimulus remains constant
The nervous system is programmed to respond to changing stimuli, and not so much to constant stimuli, with the exception of ___________, which do not adapt under any circumstance.
nociceptors
p. 299
The perception of smell as “good” or “bad” is entirely learned, based on experiences with those smells.
Name 3 kinds of proprioceptors.
muscle spindle
Golgi tendon organs
joint capsule receptors
p. 300
What is the primary neurotransmitter released from the reticular formation?
Glutamate; the reticular activating system regulates arousal
The Raphe nuclei (found in the medulla and shown in green here) is a structure within the brainstem primarily responsible for releasing what neurotransmitter?
serotonin
The dorsal column lemniscus pathway is responsible for sensing what?
The signal will travel on the [same/opposite] side of the spinal cord as the stimulus and decussate at the ________.
fine touch, proprioception, and vibrations
same
medulla
The spinothalamic tract is responsible for detecting what?
Signals travel to the spinal cord and immediately decussate, and travel up to the brain. This means the signal travels on the [same/opposite] side of the spinal cord as the stimulus
gross touch, pain, and temperature
opposite
A graded potential that moves the membrane potential to a “less negative” number is called a ________ potential, or an ________ potential, because it increases the likelihood that an action potential will be initiated.
depolarization
excitatory
A graded potential that moves the membrane potential to a “more negative” number is called a ________ potential, or an ________ potential, because it decreases the likelihood that an action potential will be initiated.
hyperpolarization
inhibitory
Graded potentials decay with _____ and _____.
This phenomenon explains both the concept of spatial summation and temporal summation, respectively.
distance and time
A synapse that is closer to the trigger zone (axon hillock), has a ______ _________ on the behavior of the neuron than a synapse that is further away from the trigger zone.
greater influence
Describe a bipolar neuron.
Multipolar?
a neuron with one dendrite (and of course one axon)
neurons with many dendrites and one axon
p. 275
A large amount of biosynthetic activity happens in neuron cell bodies. Materials are transported from the cell body down the axon to its end by _______.
kinesin
p. 276
All cells have the resting membrane potential. But _______ and _______ tissue are unique and using the resting membrane potential to generate action potentials.
neurons
muscle
p. 277
When the threshold potential is reached, what event causes the membrane potential to shoot from -50 mV to +35 mV?
opening of voltage-gated sodium channels
p. 279
if a toxin prevents voltage gated sodium channels from closing, which of the following will occur?
I. voltage gated potassium channels will open but not close.
II. The membrane will not repolarize to the normal resting membrane potential.
III. The Na+/K+ ATPase will be in activated
I and II only
p. 280
Why don’t myelinated axons conduct many more action potentials per second than unmyelinated axons?
While each individual action potential might be faster in myelinated axons, the length of the refractory period (and hence the frequency of action potentials) is based on the characteristics of the voltage gated sodium and potassium channels, not on myelination.
p. 281
Glial cells maintain a resting membrane potential, but do not generate …
…action potentials.
The equilibrium potential, which is specific for a particular ion, is positive for Na+ ions. While the concentration gradient drives sodium ions ___ __ the cell, the electrical gradient (if a bunch of Na+ ions entered) drives them __. The forces balance each other out at ___ mV which is the equilibrium potential for sodium.
in to
out
+50
p. 282
K+, however, has a negative equilibrium potential. K+ ions are driven ___ __ the cell by their concentration gradient but the electrical gradient drives them ___. The point at which these forces balance out is ___ mV, which is the equilibrium potential for potassium.
out of
in
- 90
p. 282
State the Nernst equation for determining the equilibrium potential for any ion.
The fact that the resting membrane potential is -70 mV reflects both the differences in the _____ _____ for sodium and potassium, and also the _____ _____ of leak channels for these two ions. If the cell were completely permeable to K the resting potential would be about -90 mV. The fact that the resting potential is very close to the K+ equilibrium potential indicates that there are a large number of potassium leak channels in the membrane. The cell at rest is almost completely permeable to potassium.
equilibrium potentials
relative numbers
p. 282
When the Na+/K+ ATPase pump is inhibited in a group of cultured neurons, they fire a train of action potentials, which stops spontaneously, and then the neurons cannot be stimulated into firing any more action potentials. Which of the following is the most likely explanation for this?
a. ) decreased intracellular sodium
b. ) increased intracellular potassium
c. ) depolarization
d. ) hyperpolarization
c.) depolarization
Explanation: Failure of the sodium-potassium pump would increase the intracellular concentration of sodium ions, and would decrease the intracellular concentration of potassium ions.
This would depolarize the neuron from loss of the potassium and sodium concentration gradients.
The 3 neurotransmitters which are considered amino acids are….
GABA
glycine
glutamate
What is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain?
What about the brainstem/spinal cord?
GABA
glycine
Since some neurotransmitters can be both excitatory and inhibitory, it is the type of __________ ________ that ultimately determines whether a transmission will be excitatory or inhibitory.
neurotransmitter receptor
Neurotransmitters have a unique way of exiting the cell. They do not leave through voltage-gated ion channels, they leave by….
….moving in stored vesicles toward the synapse. The vesicles then fuse with the cell membrane, allowing the contents to diffuse into the synaptic cleft.
When GABA binds to the ligand-gated _______ channels on the postsynaptic membrane, potassium ions flow out of the cell, _______ the membrane and causing an inhibitory potential.
potassium
hyperpolarizing
Electrical synapses are most common in ______ and _______ ______, whereas chemical synapses are more frequently observed in the _______ ______.
smooth
cardiac muscle
nervous system
Does damage to astrocytes cause demyelination?
No,
