Ch 8: The Nervous and Endocrine Systems (Princeton Review)

Question 1

In regard to the patellar tendon reflex, the sensory neuron that detects stretch synapse is not only with a motor neuron for the quadriceps but also with an __________ ___________.

Answer 1

inhibitory interneuron

p. 287

Question 2

An interneuron is the simplest example of the integrative role of the nervous system. Concurrent relaxation of the hamstring and contraction of the quadriceps is an example of ___________ __________.

Answer 2

reciprocal inhibition

Question 3

Discuss the etymology of the terms ‘epinephrine’ and ‘adrenaline’.

Answer 3

In Greek, “epi” means upon or on top of, “nephr” refers to the kidneys, thus epinephrine is “the hormone secreted by the gland on top of the kidney”.

The term adrenaline comes from Latin; “ad” means upon, and “renal” refers to the kidney.

Question 4

What is the result of parasympathetic stimulation of the genitals?

Answer 4

erection/ lubrication

p. 289

Question 5

White matter in the brain is called a _____. White matter in the spinal cord is called a _____ or a ______, and white matter in the PNS is called a _____.

Answer 5

tract
tract or a column
nerve

p. 289

Question 6

Gray matter deep in the brain is called a _______, gray matter on the surface of the brain is called ______, gray matter in the spinal cord is called a ______, and gray matter in the PNS is a _______.

Answer 6

nucleus
cortex
horn
ganglion

p. 289

Question 7

What is the results of sympathetic stimulation of the urinary system?

Answer 7

Relaxation of the bladder and contraction of the urethral sphincter (which collectively inhibits urination).

p. 289

Question 8

The dorsal root ganglion are protected within the vertebral column but are outside the meninges and thus outside the ___.
There is a pair of dorsal root ganglia for every _______ of the spinal cord.

Answer 8

CNS

segment

Question 9

All somatic motor neurons innervate ________ muscle cells, use _______ as their neurotransmitter, and have their cell bodies in the _________ or the _______ portion of the spinal cord.

Answer 9

skeletal
acetylcholine
brainstem
ventral

p. 294

Question 10

Nicotinic receptors will always bind to ________ while adrenergic receptors will only bind to __________.

Answer 10

acetylcholine

catecholamines

Question 11

Upper motor neuron signs include:

Answer 11

muscle hypertrophy, hyperreflexia, hypertonia, and clonus

Question 12

Type II muscle cells, also known as fast-twitch muscle fibers, will always produce a ________ force of contraction than type I muscle cells.

Answer 12

stronger

Question 13

What are the signs of a lower motor neuron disease?

Answer 13

muscle atrophy, weakness, fasciculation, fibrillation, hypotonia, and hyporeflexia

Question 14

Action potentials travel faster through myelinated axons, but do they travel faster through thick axons or thin axons?

Answer 14

THICK axons

Question 15

What sensory information is detected by mechanoreceptors?

Answer 15

vibration, touch, and position (proprioception)

Not included are temperature and pain. These are the 5 types of somatosensation.

Question 16

Smaller muscles have (smaller/larger) motor units, so that the control of the muscle is much more precise.

Answer 16

smaller

Question 17

What are the components of a motor unit?

Answer 17

lower motor neuron and all skeletal muscle cells that it synapses on

Question 18

The hindbrain includes the….

Answer 18

…medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

p. 290

Question 19

The medulla regulates vital autonomic functions such as _____ ________ and digestive functions (including ________). Also, the respiratory ___________ centers are found here.

Answer 19

blood pressure
vomiting
rhythmicity

p. 290

Question 20

What structures does the pons connect?

Answer 20

the brain stem and the cerebellum

p. 290

Question 21

What is the function of the pons?

Answer 21

It controls some autonomic function and coordinates movement, and plays a role in balance and anti-gravity posture.

p. 290

Question 22

The cerebellum is the integrating center where ______ _________ are coordinated. Both the cerebellum and the pons receive information from the vestibular apparatus in the inner ear, which monitors __________ and positive relative to gravity.

Answer 22

complex movements

acceleration

p. 290

Question 23

The forebrain includes the __________ and the __________. The latter includes the ________ and ________.

Answer 23

diencephalon
telencephalon

thalamus
hypothalamus

p. 291

Question 24

The thalamus contains relay and processing centers for _______ __________.

Answer 24

sensory information

p. 291

Question 25

Generally speaking, the areas of the left and right hemispheres have the same functions. However, the left is generally responsible for ______, and the right is more concerned with _____-______ reasoning and _____.

Answer 25

speech
visual-spatial
music

p. 291

Question 26

What does the word “cortex” mean?

Answer 26

outside layer

p. 291

Question 27

What is the function of the frontal lobes?

Answer 27

to initiate all voluntary movement and are involved in complex reasoning skills and problem solving
`
p. 291

Question 28

What is the function of the parietal lobes?

Answer 28

involvement in general sensations (such as a touch, temperature, pressure, vibration) and gustation (taste)

p. 291

Question 29

What is the function of the temporal lobes?

Answer 29

to process auditory and olfactory sensation, and involvement in short-term memory, language comprehension, and emotion

p. 291

Question 30

What is the function of the occipital lobes?

Answer 30

to process visual sensation

p. 291

Question 31

The basal nuclei (aka “cerebral nuclei”, aka “basal ganglia”) broadly function in voluntary motor control and procedural learning r/t ______. The basal nuclei and cerebellum work together to process and coordinate movement initiated by the primary motor cortex; the basal nuclei are ________, while the cerebellum is ________.

Answer 31

habits
inhibitory
excitatory

p. 292

Question 32

The limbic system is important in _______ and _______, and includes the _______, ________ _____ and the ________.

Answer 32

emotion and memory
amygdala, cingulate gyrus, and the hippocampus (ACGH)

p. 292

Question 33

The sensory homunculus can be explained by saying that a particular small area of the cortex controls a particular body part. More cortex is devoted to some parts than other; for example more cortex is devoted to the ____ than to the ______ ___.

Answer 33

lips
entire leg

p. 294

Question 34

All somatic SENSORY neurons have a long dendrite extending from a sensory receptor toward the soma, which is located just outside the CNS in a ______ ____ ________.

Answer 34

dorsal root ganglion

p. 294

Question 35

In all somatic sensory neurons, the first synapse is in the ___.

Answer 35

CNS

Question 36

All autonomic preganglionic neurons release _______ as their neurotransmitter.
All parasympathetic postganglionic neurons also release this neurotransmitter.
Nearly all sympathetic postganglionic neurons release ________ as their neurotransmitter.

Answer 36

acetylcholine
norepinephrine

p. 295

Question 37

Where are the somas of preganglionic sympathetic neurons found?

What about the somas of preganglionic parasympathetic neurons?

Answer 37

in the thoracolumbar spinal cord

In the brainstem and sacral spinal cord (craniosacral)

p. 297

Question 38

In the sympathetic nervous system, the preganglionic axon is ____, while the postganglionic axon is ____. Ganglia are also close to the ___ and far from the ___.

Answer 38

short
long
cord
target

p. 297

Question 39

In the parasympathetic nervous system, the preganglionic axon is ____, while the postganglionic axon is ____. Ganglia are also far from the ____ and close to the ____.

Answer 39

long
short

cord
target

p. 297

Question 40

Sensory receptors that detect stimuli from the outside world are __________ and receptors that respond to internal stimuli are __________.

Answer 40

exteroceptors

interoceptors

Question 41

In discussing sensory receptors in the body, what is adaptation?

Answer 41

a decrease in firing frequency when the intensity of a stimulus remains constant

Question 42

The nervous system is programmed to respond to changing stimuli, and not so much to constant stimuli, with the exception of ___________, which do not adapt under any circumstance.

Answer 42

nociceptors

p. 299

Question 43

The perception of smell as “good” or “bad” is entirely learned, based on experiences with those smells.

Question 44

Name 3 kinds of proprioceptors.

Answer 44

muscle spindle
Golgi tendon organs
joint capsule receptors

p. 300

Question 45

What is the primary neurotransmitter released from the reticular formation?

Answer 45

Glutamate; the reticular activating system regulates arousal

Question 46

The Raphe nuclei (found in the medulla and shown in green here) is a structure within the brainstem primarily responsible for releasing what neurotransmitter?

Answer 46

serotonin

Question 47

The dorsal column lemniscus pathway is responsible for sensing what?
The signal will travel on the [same/opposite] side of the spinal cord as the stimulus and decussate at the ________.

Answer 47

fine touch, proprioception, and vibrations

same
medulla

Question 48

The spinothalamic tract is responsible for detecting what?

Signals travel to the spinal cord and immediately decussate, and travel up to the brain. This means the signal travels on the [same/opposite] side of the spinal cord as the stimulus

Answer 48

gross touch, pain, and temperature

opposite

Question 49

A graded potential that moves the membrane potential to a “less negative” number is called a ________ potential, or an ________ potential, because it increases the likelihood that an action potential will be initiated.

Answer 49

depolarization

excitatory

Question 50

A graded potential that moves the membrane potential to a “more negative” number is called a ________ potential, or an ________ potential, because it decreases the likelihood that an action potential will be initiated.

Answer 50

hyperpolarization

inhibitory

Question 51

Graded potentials decay with _____ and _____.

This phenomenon explains both the concept of spatial summation and temporal summation, respectively.

Answer 51

distance and time

Question 52

A synapse that is closer to the trigger zone (axon hillock), has a ______ _________ on the behavior of the neuron than a synapse that is further away from the trigger zone.

Answer 52

greater influence

Question 53

Describe a bipolar neuron.

Multipolar?

Answer 53

a neuron with one dendrite (and of course one axon)

neurons with many dendrites and one axon

p. 275

Question 54

A large amount of biosynthetic activity happens in neuron cell bodies. Materials are transported from the cell body down the axon to its end by _______.

Answer 54

kinesin

p. 276

Question 55

All cells have the resting membrane potential. But _______ and _______ tissue are unique and using the resting membrane potential to generate action potentials.

Answer 55

neurons
muscle

p. 277

Question 56

When the threshold potential is reached, what event causes the membrane potential to shoot from -50 mV to +35 mV?

Answer 56

opening of voltage-gated sodium channels

p. 279

Question 57

if a toxin prevents voltage gated sodium channels from closing, which of the following will occur?
I. voltage gated potassium channels will open but not close.
II. The membrane will not repolarize to the normal resting membrane potential.
III. The Na+/K+ ATPase will be in activated

Answer 57

I and II only

p. 280

Question 58

Why don’t myelinated axons conduct many more action potentials per second than unmyelinated axons?

Answer 58

While each individual action potential might be faster in myelinated axons, the length of the refractory period (and hence the frequency of action potentials) is based on the characteristics of the voltage gated sodium and potassium channels, not on myelination.

p. 281

Question 59

Glial cells maintain a resting membrane potential, but do not generate …

Answer 59

…action potentials.

Question 60

The equilibrium potential, which is specific for a particular ion, is positive for Na+ ions. While the concentration gradient drives sodium ions ___ __ the cell, the electrical gradient (if a bunch of Na+ ions entered) drives them __. The forces balance each other out at ___ mV which is the equilibrium potential for sodium.

Answer 60

in to
out
+50

p. 282

Question 61

K+, however, has a negative equilibrium potential. K+ ions are driven ___ __ the cell by their concentration gradient but the electrical gradient drives them ___. The point at which these forces balance out is ___ mV, which is the equilibrium potential for potassium.

Answer 61

out of
in

• 90
  p. 282

Question 62

State the Nernst equation for determining the equilibrium potential for any ion.

Answer 62

Question 63

The fact that the resting membrane potential is -70 mV reflects both the differences in the _____ _____ for sodium and potassium, and also the _____ _____ of leak channels for these two ions. If the cell were completely permeable to K the resting potential would be about -90 mV. The fact that the resting potential is very close to the K+ equilibrium potential indicates that there are a large number of potassium leak channels in the membrane. The cell at rest is almost completely permeable to potassium.

Answer 63

equilibrium potentials
relative numbers

p. 282

Question 64

When the Na+/K+ ATPase pump is inhibited in a group of cultured neurons, they fire a train of action potentials, which stops spontaneously, and then the neurons cannot be stimulated into firing any more action potentials. Which of the following is the most likely explanation for this?

a. ) decreased intracellular sodium
b. ) increased intracellular potassium
c. ) depolarization
d. ) hyperpolarization

Answer 64

c.) depolarization

Explanation: Failure of the sodium-potassium pump would increase the intracellular concentration of sodium ions, and would decrease the intracellular concentration of potassium ions.
This would depolarize the neuron from loss of the potassium and sodium concentration gradients.

Question 65

The 3 neurotransmitters which are considered amino acids are….

Answer 65

GABA
glycine
glutamate

Question 66

What is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain?

What about the brainstem/spinal cord?

Answer 66

GABA

glycine

Question 67

Since some neurotransmitters can be both excitatory and inhibitory, it is the type of __________ ________ that ultimately determines whether a transmission will be excitatory or inhibitory.

Answer 67

neurotransmitter receptor

Question 68

Neurotransmitters have a unique way of exiting the cell. They do not leave through voltage-gated ion channels, they leave by….

Answer 68

….moving in stored vesicles toward the synapse. The vesicles then fuse with the cell membrane, allowing the contents to diffuse into the synaptic cleft.

Question 69

When GABA binds to the ligand-gated _______ channels on the postsynaptic membrane, potassium ions flow out of the cell, _______ the membrane and causing an inhibitory potential.

Answer 69

potassium

hyperpolarizing

Question 70

Electrical synapses are most common in ______ and _______ ______, whereas chemical synapses are more frequently observed in the _______ ______.

Answer 70

smooth
cardiac muscle
nervous system

Question 71

Does damage to astrocytes cause demyelination?

Answer 71

No,