Ch. 7

Question 1

schedule of reinforcement

Answer 1

Is the response requirement that must be met to obtain reinforcement.

In other words, a schedule indicates what exactly has to be done for the reinforcer to be delivered.

Question 2

continuous reinforcement schedule

Answer 2

is one in which each specified response is reinforced.

An FR 1 schedule of reinforcement can also be called a continuous reinforcement schedule.

Question 3

intermittent (or partial) reinforcement schedule

Answer 3

is one in which only some responses are reinforced.

Question 4

Schedule effects

Answer 4

Schedule effects are the different effects on behavior produced by different response requirements.

These are the stable patterns of behavior that emerge once the organism has had sufficient exposure to the schedule.

Such stable patterns are known as steady state behaviors.

Question 5

Fixed Ratio Schedules

Answer 5

On a fixed ratio (FR) schedule, reinforcement is contingent upon a fixed, predictable number of responses.

For example, on a fixed ratio 5 schedule, a rat has to press the lever five times to obtain a food pellet.

Generally produce a high rate of response along with a short pause following the attainment of each reinforcer.

This short pause is known as a post-reinforcement pause.

_{For example, a rat on an FR 25 schedule will rapidly emit 25 lever presses, munch down the food pellet it receives, and snoop around the chamber for a few seconds before rapidly emitting another 25 lever presses.}

_{Note, too, that each pause is usually followed by a relatively quick return to a high rate of response.}

Thus, the typical FR pattern is described as a “break-and-run” pattern, a short break followed by a steady run of responses.

In general, higher ratio requirements produce longer post-reinforcement pauses.

Question 6

Schedules in which the reinforcer is easily obtained are said to be

Answer 6

very dense or rich, while schedules in which the reinforcer is difficult to obtain are said to be very lean.

Ex: An FR 12 schedule of reinforcement is denser than an FR 75 schedule.

In general, “stretching the ratio”— moving from a low ratio requirement (a dense schedule) to a high ratio requirement (a lean schedule) should be done gradually.

Question 7

ratio strain

Answer 7

which is a disruption in responding due to an overly demanding response requirement.

Occurs when you jump from a low ratio requirement to a high ratio requirement

Ratio strain is what most people would refer to as “burnout,”

behavior may become increasingly erratic, with respect to what they’re trying to do. Like studying

Question 8

variable ratio (VR) schedule,

Answer 8

On a variable ratio (VR) schedule, reinforcement is contingent upon a varying, unpredictable number of responses.

VR schedules generally produce a high and steady rate of response, often with little or no post-reinforcement pause. _{unlikely to occur when the minimum response requirement in the schedule is very low}

As with an FR schedule, an extremely lean VR schedule can result in
ratio strain

_{Variable ratio schedules help account for the persistence with which some people display certain maladaptive behaviors.(gambling)}

_{ex: Some predatory behaviors, such as that shown by cheetahs, have a strong VR component in that only some attempts at chasing down prey are successful. In humans, only some acts of politeness receive an acknowledgment,}

Question 9

Variable ratio schedules of reinforcement may also facilitate the development of an abusive or exploitative relationship.

Answer 9

At the start of a relationship, the individuals involved typically provide each other with an enormous amount of positive reinforcement (a very dense schedule).

This strengthens the relationship and increases each partner’s attraction to the other.

As the relationship progresses, such reinforcement naturally becomes somewhat more intermittent.

_{In some situations, however, this process becomes malignant, with one person (the taker) providing reinforcement on an extremely intermittent basis, and the other person (the Giver) working incredibly hard to obtain that reinforcement.}

_{Because the process evolves gradually (a process of slowly “stretching the ratio”), the Giver may have little awareness of what is happening until the abusive pattern is well established.}

_{What would motivate such an unbalanced process?}

_{— One source of motivation is that the less often the Taker reinforces the Giver, the more attention (reinforcement) they receive from the Giver.}

_{In other words, the Giver works so hard to get the Taker’s attention that they actually reinforce the very process of being largely ignored by that partner.}

_{may be relationships in which the partners alternate the role of Giver and Taker.}

_{The result may be a volatile relationship that both partners find exciting but that is constantly on the verge of collapse due to frequent periods in which each partner experiences “ratio strain.”}

Question 10

fixed interval (FI) schedule,

Answer 10

On a fixed interval (FI) schedule, reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a fixed, predictable period of time.

FI schedules often produce a “scalloped” (upwardly curved) pattern of responding, consisting of a post-reinforcement pause followed by a gradually increasing rate of response as the interval draws to a close.

On a pure FI schedule, any response that occurs during the interval is irrelevant.

_{Ex: If I have just missed the bus when I get to the bus stop, I know that I have to wait 15 minutes for the next one to come along. Given that it is absolutely freezing out, I snuggle into my parka as best I can and grimly wait out the interval. Every once in a while, though, I emerge from my cocoon to take a quick glance down the street to see if the bus is coming. My behavior of looking for the bus is on a(n) FI 15- min (use the abbreviation) schedule of reinforcement.}

_{I will probably engage in a few glances at the start of the interval, followed a graduallv increasing rate of glancing as time passes}

Question 11

variable interval (VI) schedule,

Answer 11

On a variable interval (VI) schedule, reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a varying, unpredictable period of time.

VI schedules usually produce a moderate, steady rate of response, often with little or no post-reinforcement pause.

_{Because VI schedules produce steady, predictable response rates, they are often used to investigate other aspects of operant conditioning, such as those involving choice between alternative sources of reinforcement.}

_{ex: The behavior of checking your cell phone for notifications is maintained on a VI schedule. Our phones provide all sorts of reinforcers, from simple entertainment to meaningful communication with other people, and those little notification alerts pop up every so often. Even if you’ve just checked your phone, to see if any texts have arrived or if someone has liked the photo you posted, you may feel compelled to check it again.}

Question 12

Comparing the Four Basic Schedules

Answer 12

In general, ratio schedules tend to produce a high rate of response. This is because the reinforcer in such schedules is entirely response contingent, meaning that the rapidity with which responses
are emitted does affect how soon the reinforcer is obtained.

On interval schedules, the reinforcer is largely time contingent, meaning that the rapidity with which responses are emitted has little effect on how soon the reinforcer is obtained.

In general, variable schedules produce little or no post-reinforcement pausing because such schedules often provide the possibility of relatively immediate reinforcement, even if one has just obtained a reinforcer.

In general, fixed schedules produce post-reinforcement pauses because obtaining one reinforcer means that the next reinforcer is necessarily quite distant.

FR
Response rate: high
Post-reinforcement pause: yes

VR
Response rate: high
Post-reinforcement pause: no

FI
Response rate: increasing
Post-reinforcement pause: yes

VI
Response rate: moderate
Post-reinforcement pause: no

Question 13

fixed duration (FD) schedule

Answer 13

On a fixed duration (FD) schedule, the behavior must be performed continuously for a fixed, predictable period of time.

_{For example, the rat must run in the wheel for 60 seconds to earn one pellet of food (an FD 60-sec schedule).}

Question 14

variable duration (VD) schedule,

Answer 14

On a variable duration (VD) schedule, the behavior must be performed continuously for a varying, unpredictable period of time.

_{For example, the rat must run in the wheel for an average of 60 seconds to earn one pellet of food, with the required time varying between 1 second and 120 seconds on any particular trial (a VD 60-sec schedule).}

Question 15

How do FD and VD schedules differ from FI and VI schedules?

Answer 15

On a VD schedule, reinforcement is contingent upon responding continuously for a varying period of time; on an FI schedule, reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a fixed period of time.

Although duration schedules are sometimes useful in modifying certain human behaviors, such as studying, they are in some ways rather imprecise compared to the four basic schedules.

_{With FR schedules, for example, one knows precisely what was done to achieve the reinforcer, namelv, a certain number of responses.}

_{On an FD schedule, however, what constitutes “continuous performance of behavior” during the interval could vary widely.</sub}

_{—Ex: Julie’s son might read only a few pages during his two-hour study session or charge through several chapters; in either case, he would receive the reinforcer of being allowed to watch television.
—Remember reinforcing the mere performance of an activity with no regard to level of performance might undermine a person’s intrinsic interest in that activity. This danger obviously applies to duration schedules; one therefore needs to be cautious in their use.}

Question 16

response-rate schedule,

Answer 16

in a response-rate schedule, reinforcement is directly contingent upon the organism’s rate of response.

three types of response-rate schedules.
— differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH)
—differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL)
—differential reinforcement of paced responding (DRP)

Question 17

differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH),

Answer 17

In differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH), reinforcement is contingent upon emitting at least a certain number of responses in a certain period of time or, more generally, reinforcement is provided for responding at a fast rate.

The term differential reinforcement means simply that one type of response is reinforced while another is not.

reinforcement is provided for a high rate of response and not for a low rate.

Question 18

differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL),

Answer 18

In differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL), a minimum amount of time must pass between each response before the reinforcer will be delivered or, more generally, reinforcement is provided for responding at a slow rate.

responding during the interval must not occur in order for a response following the interval to produce a reinforcer.

Question 19

differential reinforcement of paced responding (DRP),

Answer 19

In differential reinforcement of paced responding (DRP), reinforcement is contingent upon emitting a series of responses at a set rate or, more generally, reinforcement is provided for responding neither too fast nor too slow.

Question 20

noncontingent schedule of reinforcement

Answer 20

On a noncontingent schedule of reinforcement, the reinforcer is delivered independently of any response.

In other words, a response is not required for the reinforcer to be obtained.

Such schedules are also called response-independent schedules.

There are two types of noncontingent schedules: fixed time and variable time.

Question 21

fixed time (FT) schedule,

Answer 21

On a fixed time (FT) schedule, the reinforcer is delivered following a fixed, predictable period of time, regardless of the organism’s behavior.

Question 22

variable time (VT) schedule,

Answer 22

On a variable time (VT) schedule, the reinforcer is delivered following a varying, unpredictable period of time, regardless of the organism’s behavior.

Question 23

adjunctive behaviors.

Answer 23

When noncontingent reinforcement happens to follow a particular behavior, that behavior may increase in strength even though it is not required to obtain the reinforcer. Such behavior is referred to as superstitious behavior.

ritualistic behaviors observed may have consisted of innate tendencies, almost like fidgeting behaviors, that are often elicited during a period of waiting.

superstitious behavior thinking doing something will get you a reward when it doesn’t

Question 24

Herrnstein (1966)

Answer 24

noted that such behaviors can sometimes develop as a by-product
of contingent reinforcement for some other behavior.

Question 25

What happens if a noncontingent schedule of reinforcement is superimposed on a regular contingent schedule of reinforcement?

Answer 25

What if, for example, a pigeon responding on a VI schedule of food reinforcement also receives extra reinforcers for free?

the pigeon’s rate of response on the VI schedule will decrease.

Question 26

Noncontingent reinforcement benefits

Answer 26

noncontingent reinforcement is sometimes quite beneficial. More specifically, it can be an effective means for reducing the frequency of maladaptive behaviors.

Noncontingent reinforcement has even been shown to reduce the frequency of self-injurious behavior.

Question 27

Carl Rogers (1959)

Answer 27

the famous humanistic psychologist, called “unconditional positive regard.”
(noncontingent reinforcement)

Unconditional positive regard refers to the love, respect, and acceptance that one receives from significant others, regardless of one’s behavior.

Rogers assumed that such regard is a necessary precondition for the development of a healthy personality.

_{From a behavioral perspective, unconditional positive regard can be viewed as a form of noncontingent social reinforcement, which can indeed have beneficial effects.}

_{In fact, it seems likely that proper child rearing requires healthy doses of both noncontingent reinforcement, which gives the child a secure base from which to explore the world and take risks, and contingent reinforcement, which helps shape the child’s behavior in appropriate ways, maximize skill development, and prevent the development of passivity.}

Question 28

complex schedule

Answer 28

complex schedule consists of a combination of two or more simple schedules.

Question 29

Conjunctive Schedules

Answer 29

A conjunctive schedule is a type of complex schedule in which the requirements of two or more simple schedules must be met before a reinforcer is delivered.

_{For example, on a conjunctive FI 2-minute FR 100 schedule, reinforcement is contingent upon completing 100 lever presses plus at least one lever press following a two-minute interval.}

Question 30

Adjusting Schedules

Answer 30

In an adjusting schedule, the response requirement changes as a function of the organism’s performance while responding for the previous reinforcer.

_{ex: To the extent that a gymnast is trying to improve their performance, their behavior is likelv on a(n) adjusting schedule of reinforcement; to the extent that their performance is judged according to both the form and quickness of their moves, their behavior is on a(n) conjunctive schedule of reinforcement.}

Question 31

Chained Schedules

Answer 31

A chained schedule consists of a sequence of two or more simple schedules, each of which has its own SD and the last of which results in a terminal reinforcer.

In other words, the person or animal must work through a series of component schedules to obtain the sought-after reinforcer.

Within a chain, completion of each of the early links ends in a secondary reinforcer, which also functions as the
SD for the next link of the chain.

A chained schedule differs from a conjunctive schedule in that the two component schedules must be completed in a particular order, which is not required in a conjunctive schedule.

An efficient way to establish responding on a chained schedule is to train the final link first and the initial link last, a process known as backward chaining.

Question 32

goal gradient effect

Answer 32

The goal gradient effect is an increase in the strength and/or efficiency of responding as one draws near to the goal.

_{(Perhaps the most profound example of a goal gradient, however, is that shown by people who desperately need to urinate and move very quickly as they near the washroom.)}

Responding tends to be weaker in the earlier chain.

Question 33

Chained Schedules and completing a course

Answer 33

Unfortunately, in the case of very long chains, such as completing a course, the terminal reinforcer is often extremely distant, with the result that behavior is easily disrupted during the early part of the chain (remember the goal gradient principle).

This is yet another reason for why it is much easier to be a diligent student the night before the midterm than during the first week of the semester.

Can anything be done to alleviate this problem?

One possibility is to make the completion of each link in the chain more salient (i.e., more noticeable), thereby enhancing its value as a secondary reinforcer.

Students sometimes keep detailed records of the number of hours studied or pages read.

They might also compile a “to-do” list of assignments and then cross off each item as it is completed.

Crossing off an item provides a clear record that a task has been accomplished and also functions as a secondary reinforcer that helps motivate us.

In fact, it can be so reinforcing that many people will actually add a task to a to-do list after they have completed it, simply to have the pleasure of crossing it off!

Question 34

backward chaining.

Answer 34

An efficient way to train a complex chain, especially in animals, is through backward chaining, in which the last link of the chain is trained first.

However, this type of procedure usually is not required with verbally proficient humans, with whom behavior chains can be quickly established through the use of instructions.

Question 35

drive reduction theory,

Answer 35

In drive reduction theory, an event is reinforcing to the extent that it is associated with a reduction in some type of physiological drive.

According to drive reduction theory, an event is reinforcing if it is associated with a reduction in some type of primary drive.

According to this theory, a secondary reinforcer is one that has been associated, directly or indirectly, with a primary reinforcer that reduces a drive.

A major problem with drive reduction theory is that some reinforcers do not seem to be associated with a physiological need.

_{ex: Thus, food deprivation produces a “hunger drive,” which propels the animal to seek out food. When food is obtained, the hunger drive is reduced. At the same time, the behavior that preceded this drive reduction, and led to the food, is automatically strengthened.}

most theorists no longer believe that drive reduction theory can offer a
comprehensive account of reinforcement.

Question 36

Incentive motivation

Answer 36

Incentive motivation is motivation that is derived from some property of the reinforcer, as opposed to an internal drive state.

_{Ex: Research has shown that hungry rats will perform more effectively in a T-maze when the reinforcer for a correct response (right turn versus left turn) consists of several small pellets as opposed to one large pellet, The fact that several small bites of food are a more effective reinforcer than one large bite is consistent with the notion of incentive motivation}

Question 37

The Premack Principle

Answer 37

The Premack principle proposes that reinforcers can often be viewed as behaviors rather than stimuli.

For example, rather than saying that
the rat’s lever pressing was reinforced with food, we could say that it was reinforced with eating food. It also distinguishes between behaviors in terms of their relative probability or frequency

The Premack principle states that a(n) high probability behavior can be used as a reinforcer for a(n) low probability behaviour

In the Premack principle of reinforcement, the low-probability behavior precedes the high-probability behavior, with the former being the target behavior and the latter being the reinforcer

_{ex: According to the Premack principle, if you crack your knuckles three times per hour and burp 20 times per hour, the opportunity to burp may be an effective reinforcer for knuckle cracking}

_{Similar to the Premack principle, in Grandma’s rule, first you work, which is a(n) LPB, and then you play, which is a(n) HPB.}

Question 38

Response Deprivation Hypothesis

Answer 38

The response deprivation hypithesis states that a behavior can serve as a reinforcer when

(1) access to that behavior is restricted and
(2) its frequency thereby falls, or is in danger of falling, below its preferred level of occurrence.

According to the response deprivation hypothesis, a response can serve as a reinforcer if free access to the response is restricted and its frequency then falls below its baseline preferred level of occurrence.

_{The preferred level of an activity is its baseline level of occurrence when the animal (or person) can freely engage in that activity.}

The response deprivation hypothesis differs from the Premack principle in that we need only know the baseline frequency of the reinforcing behavior.
_{To help distinguish between the Premack principle and the response deprivation hypothesis, ask vourself whether the contingency is based on the frequency of one behavior relative to a second behavior (in which case, it is an example of the Premack principle), or the frequency of a single behavior which we are being, or are in danger of being, deprived of (in which case it is an example of the response deprivation hypothesis).}

_{The response deprivation approach also provides a general explanation for why contingencies of reinforcement are effective. Contingencies of reinforcement are effective to the extent that they create a condition in which the organism is confronted with the possibility of a certain response falling below its preferred level.}

Question 39

Behavioral Bliss Point Approach

Answer 39

According to the behavioral bliss point approach, an organism with free access to alternative activities will distribute its behavior in such a way as to maximize overall reinforcement.

Contingencies of reinforcement often disrupt the preferred distribution of behavior such that it is impossible to obtain the optimal amount of reinforcement.
_{When activities are not freely available such as when the two activities are intertwined in a contingency of reinforcement—then the optimal distribution may become unattainable.}

Given this state of affairs, the organism will redistribute its activities to get as near to the bliss point as possible.

_{Ex: a rat that can freely choose between running in a wheel and exploring a maze might spend two hours per day running in a wheel and two hours exploring a maze— same amount of time exploring the maze as running. —> optimal distribution of activities for those two activities— that is, the behavioral bliss point for that particular rat.}

Question 40

Kailey typically watches television for two hours per day and reads comic books for one hour per day.

You set up a contingency whereby Kailey must watch 2.5 hours of television each day in order to have any access to her comic books.

According to the Premack principle, this will likely be an ____ contingency.

According to the response deprivation hypothesis, this will likely be an ____ contingency.

Answer 40

1. ineffective
2. effective