Ch. 4

Question 1

acquisition

Answer 1

In classical conditioning, acquisition refers to the process of developing and strengthening a conditioned response through repeated pairings of a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US).

In general, acquisition proceeds rapidly during early conditioning trials and then gradually levels off.

Question 2

asymptote of conditioning

Answer 2

The maximum amount of conditioning that can take place in a particular situation is known as the asymptote of conditioning.

asymptote of conditioning, as well as the speed of conditioning, is dependent on several factors.

In general, more intense USs produce stronger and more rapid conditioning than do less intense US.

Similarly, more intense NSs result in stronger and more rapid conditioning than do less intense NSs.

Question 3

Extinction

Answer 3

a conditioned response is weakened or eliminated when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented in the absence of the US.

Extinction also applies to the procedure whereby this happens, namely the repeated presentation of the CS in the absence of the US.

The process of extinction is the decrease in the strength of the CR, and the procedure of extinction is the means by which this is carried out, namely the repeated presentation of the
metronome without the food.

Question 4

Extinction procedure

Answer 4

Suppose, for example, that a metronome has been paired with food such that it now elicits a conditioned response of salivation:

Metronome (NS): Food (US) - >Salivation (UR)
Metronome (CS) - >Salivation (CR)

If we now continue to present the metronome by itself and never again pair it with food (each presentation of the metronome being known as an “extinction trial”), the conditioned response of salivation will eventually die out -that is, the CR of salivation will have been extinguished.

Metronome (“NS”) - >No Salivation (-)

The process of extinction is the decrease in the strength of the CR, and the procedure of extinction is the means by which this is carried out, namely the repeated presentation of the metronome without the food.

Question 5

How phobias impact extinction

Answer 5

The tendency to avoid a feared event is a major factor in the development and
maintenance of a phobia, and treatment procedures for phobias are often based on preventing this avoidance response from occurring.

Once a CR has been extinguished, one should not assume that the effects of conditioning have been completely eliminated.

Question 6

Extinction doesn’t completely go away

Answer 6

Once a CR has been extinguished, one should not assume that the effects of conditioning have been completely eliminated

For this reason, in the preceding diagram, the “NS” following extinction has been placed in quotation marks, since it is no longer a pure neutral stimulus.

For one thing, a response that has been extinguished can be reacquired quite rapidly when the CS (or NS) is once again paired with the US.

As further evidence that extinction does not completely eliminate the effects of conditioning, an extinguished response can reappear even in the absence of further pairings between the CS and US.

Ex: extinguish a dog’s conditioned salivary response to a metronome by repeatedly presenting the metronome without food. —> by end of day it’s gone. —> come back tomorrow, has it again —> repeat extinction procedure daily —> until one day you come in and the 1st time do it, dog doesn’t respond.

Question 7

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 7

is the reappearance of a conditioned response to a CS following a rest
period after extinction. Fortunately, spontaneous recovery does not last forever.

Each time the response recovers, it is usually weaker and extinguishes more quickly than before.

Therefore, after several extinction sessions, we should be able to sound the
metronome at the start of the session and find little or no salivation.

is particularly important to remember when attempting to extinguish a conditioned fear response.

Question 8

To Pavlov (1927), the phenomenon of spontaneous recovery

Answer 8

indicated that extinction is not
simply a process of unlearning the conditioning that has taken place.

Rather, extinction involves learning something new, namely, to inhibit the occurrence of the CR in the presence
of the CS.

Spontaneous recovery may therefore represent the partial weakening of this inhibition during the rest period between extinction sessions.

Support for the notion that extinction involves a buiIdup of inhibition is also provided by a phenomenon known as disinhibition.

Question 9

Disinhibition

Answer 9

is the sudden recovery of a conditioned response during an extinction procedure when a novel (unfamiliar) stimulus is introduced.

Question 10

Disinhibition example

Answer 10

if we are in the process of extinguishing conditioning to a metronome but then present an unusual humming noise in the background, the sound of the metronome may again elicit a considerable amount of salivation.

(Step 1: First condition the metronome as a CS for salivation)

Metronome (NS): Food (US) - >Salivation (UR)
Metronome (CS) - >Salivation (CR)

(Step 2: Begin extinction trials by repeatedly presenting the metronome by itself; as a result, the CR is greatly weakened)

Metronome (CS) - >Weak salivation (partially extinguished CR)

(Step 3: Present a novel humming noise in background during the extinction procedure; as a result, the CR recovers in strength)

(Unusual humming noise) Metronome (CS) - >Salivation (full CR)

Question 11

phenomenon of disinhibition is similar to dishabituation

Answer 11

dishabituation involves the reappearance of a habituated response,

and

disinhibition involves the recovery of a response that has become partially inhibited due to extinction.)

Question 12

Extinction is not the same as forgetting.

Answer 12

The key difference, therefore, is that in extinction, a CR is eliminated because of repeated exposure to the CS in the absence of the US, whereas forgetting simply requires the passage of time and does not require repeated exposure to the CS in order for the CR to be eliminated.

Question 13

stimulus generalization

Answer 13

is the tendency for a CR to occur in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to the Cs. In general, the more similar the stimulus is to the original CS, the stronger the response.

The process of generalization is most apparent when the stimuli involved are physically similar and vary along a continuum.

Question 14

Semantic generalization

Answer 14

is the generalization of a conditioned response to verbal stimuli that are similar in meaning to the CS.

meaning of the word is the critical factor in semantic generalization.

For example, if humans are exposed to a conditioning procedure in which the sight of the word car is paired with shock, that word eventually becomes a CS that elicits a fear response. When participants are shown other words, generalization of the fear response is more likely to occur to those words that are similar in meaning to car, such as automobile or truck, than to words that look or sound similar, such as bar or tar.

Question 15

stimulus discrimination

Answer 15

the tendency for a response to be elicited more by one stimulus than another.

Discriminations can be deliberately trained through a procedure known as discrimination training.

Discrimination training is a useful means for determining the sensory capacities of animals.

For example, a dog salivates in the presence of the 2000-Hz tone but not in the presence of a 1900-Hz tone, then we say that it is able to discriminate, or has formed a discrimination, between the 2 stimuli.

Question 16

discrimination training

Answer 16

The discrimination training has, in effect, countered the tendency for generalization to occur.

Repeatedly present the dog with one type of trial in which a 2000-Hz tone is alwavs followed by food and another type of trial in which a 1900-Hz, tone is never followed by food, the dog will soon learn to salivate in the presence of the 2000-Hz tone and not in the presence of the 1900-Hz tone.

Step 1: Conditioning phase (with the two types of trials presented several times in random order) (if not in random order, dog might associate the presentation of food with every second tone rather than with the tone that has a pitch of 2000 Hz.)

2000-Hz tone (NS): Food (US) - >Salivation (UR)

1900-Hz tone (NS): No Food (- )

Step 2: Test phase

2000-Hz tone (CS+ ->Salivation (CR)

1900-Hz. tone (CS-) - > No salivation ( )

As a result of training, the 2000-Hz tone has become an excitatory CS (or CS+) because it predicts the presentation of food, and the 1900-Hz tone has become an inhibitory CS (or CS-) because it predicts the absence of food.

Question 17

Generalization and discrimination play an important role in many aspects of human behavior. Ex: Phobias

Answer 17

involve not only the classical conditioning of a fear response, but also an overgeneralization of that fear response to inappropriate stimuli.

Ex: woman who has experienced an abusive relationship with a man may develop feelings of anxiety and apprehensiveness toward most men.

Eventually, however, through repeated interactions with men who are not abusive, this tendency can decrease and she can begin to adaptively discriminate between men who are potentially abusive and those who are not.

Unfortunately, such discriminations are not always easily made, and further bad experiences could greatly strengthen her fear.

Moreover, if the woman begins to avoid all men, then the tendency to overgeneralize may remain, thereby significantly impairing her social life.

if we avoid that which we are afraid of, it is difficult for us to overcome our fears.

Question 18

Experimental Neurosis

Answer 18

_{Pavlov (1927, 1928) reported an interesting discovery made by a colleague, Shenger-Krestovnikova, that arose during a discrimination training procedure.}

An experimentally produced disorder in which animals exposed to unpredictable events develop neurotic-like symptoms.

Pavlov hypothesized that human neuroses might develop in a similar manner. Situations of extreme uncertainty can be stressful, and prolonged exposure to such uncertainty might result in the development of neurotic symptoms.

Question 19

Experimental Neurosis example

Answer 19

Image of a circle signaled the presentation of food and an ellipse signaled no food.

Normal processes of discrimination, the dog duly learned to salivate when it saw the circle (a CS+) and not salivate when it saw the ellipse (a CS-).

Following this, the ellipse was gradually made more circular, making it more difficult for the dog to determine when food was about to appear.

When the ellipse was almost completely circular, the dog was able to make only a weak discrimination, salivating slightly more in the presence of the circle than in the presence of the ellipse.

Interestingly, continued training with these stimuli did not result in any improvement.

In fact, after several weeks, the discrimination was lost. More interestingly, however, the hitherto well-behaved dog became extremely agitated during each session-squealing, wriggling about, and biting at the equipment.

It acted as though it were experiencing a serious emotional breakdown.

Question 20

Pavlov formulated a theory of personality

Answer 20

discovered that different dogs displayed different symptoms.

Some dogs became anxious when exposed to the procedure, while others became catatonic (rigid) and acted almost hypnotized.

Others, displayed few if any symptoms and did not have a breakdown.

Pavlov speculated that such differences reflected underlying differences in
temperament.

This was an extension of one of Pavlov’s earlier observations that certain dogs
condition more easily than others.

Shy, withdrawn dogs seemed to make the best subjects, conditioning easily, whereas active, outgoing dogs were more difficult to condition (which is quite the opposite of what Pavlov had originally expected).

Based on results such as these, Pavlov formulated a theory of personality in which inherited differences in temperament interact with classical conditioning to produce general patterns of behavior.

Question 21

Eysenck (1957) later utilized certain aspects of Pavlov’s work in formulating his own theory of personality.

Answer 21

A major aspect of Eysenck’s theory is the distinction between introversion and extroversion.

In very general terms,

introverts are individuals who are highly reactive to external stimulation (hence, cannot tolerate large amounts of stimulation and tend to withdraw from such stimulation), condition easily, and develop anxiety-type symptoms in reaction to stress.

Extroverts are less reactive to external stimulation (hence, can tolerate, and will even seek out, large amounts of stimulation), condition less easily, and develop physical-type symptoms in reaction to stress.

Question 22

Eysenck’s theory also proposes that psychopaths,…

Answer 22

individuals who engage in antisocial behavior, are extreme extroverts who condition very poorly.

As a result, they experience little or no conditioned anxiety when harming or taking advantage of others, such anxiety being the underlying basis of a conscience.

Question 23

Both Pavlov’s and Evsenck’s theories of personality

Answer 23

are considerably more complicated than
presented, involving additional dimensions of personality and finer distinctions between
different types of conditioning, especially excitatory and inhibitory conditioning.

Thus, extroverts do not always condition more poorly than introverts, and additional factors are presumed to influence the development of neurotic symptoms.

Nevertheless, processes of classical conditioning interacting with inherited differences in temperament could well be major factors in determining one’s personality.

The experimental neurosis paradigm also suggests that prolonged exposure to unpredictable events can sometimes have serious effects on our well-being.

Question 24

Higher-Order Conditioning

Answer 24

a stimulus that is associated with a CS can also become a CS.

In reality, however, modern researchers use other procedures to study classical conditioning, such as the conditioned suppression procedure.

We could also attempt third-order conditioning by pairing yet another stimulus.

However, third-order conditioning can be experimentally difficult to obtain, and when it is obtained, the conditioned response to a third-order conditioned stimulus (the CS ) is likely to be quite weak.

Higher-order conditioning is commonly used in advertising.

For example, advertisements often pair a product with celebrities who, through past conditioning, have come to elicit positive emotional responses in many of us.

The assumption is that the sight of the celebrity will elicit a positive emotional response in us that will be associated with the product and thereby increase the likelihood that we will purchase the product.

Question 25

Higher-Order Conditioning example

Answer 25

Suppose you are stung by a wasp while out for a run one day and, as a result, develop a terrible fear of wasps.

Imagine, too, that following the development of this fear, you notice a lot of wasps near the trash bin outside your apartment building.

Step 1: Basic conditioning of a fear response to wasps. As part of a higher-order conditioning procedure, this first step is called “first-order conditioning,» and the original NS and CS are respectively labeled NS1 and CS1.

Wasp (NS1) : Sting (US) - >Fear (UR)

Wasp (CS1) - >Fear (CR)

Step 2: Higher-order conditioning of the trash bin through its association with wasps. This second step is sometimes also called “second-order conditioning,” and the new NS and CS are labeled NS, and CS2.

Trash bin (NS,) : Wasp (CS,) - >Fear (CR)

Trash bin (CS2) : - >Fear (CR)

The CS2 generally elicits a weaker response than the CS1.

Thus, the fear response produced by the trash bin is likely to be much weaker than the fear response produced by the wasps.

This is not surprising, given that the trash bin is only indirectly associated with the unconditioned stimulus (i.e., the wasp sting) upon which the fear response is based.

Question 26

sensory preconditioning

Answer 26

When one stimulus is conditioned as a CS, another stimulus with which it was previously paired can also become a CS.

This type of conditioning works best if the stimuli are paired relatively few times. This prevents the animal from becoming overly familiar with the stimuli prior to conditioning (which can interfere with conditioning).

Another unusual finding with sensory preconditioning is that the procedure is sometimes more effective when the two stimuli in the preconditioning phase are presented simultaneously as opposed to sequentially. = NS-NS pairings can result in stronger sensory preconditioning when the two stimuli are presented simultaneously than NS-US pairings in normal conditioning.

This result is unusual because it contradicts what we find with NS-US pairings, in which simultaneous presentation of the two stimuli is relatively ineffective.

Sensory preconditioning is significant because it demonstrates that stimuli can become associated with each other in the absence of any identifiable response (other than an orienting response). In this sense, sensory preconditioning can be viewed as a form of latent learning. (Just as Tolman’s rats in the maze)

Question 27

sensory preconditioning example

Answer 27

If you previously associated the toolshed with wasps and then acquired a fear of wasps as a result of being stung, you might also feel anxious when walking near the toolshed.

Step 1: Preconditioning phase in which the toolshed is associated with wasps

Toolshed (NS2) : Wasps (NSi)

Step 2: Conditioning of wasps as a CS1

Wasp (NS1) : Sting (US) - >Fear (UR)

Wasp (CS1) - >Fear (CR)

Step 3: Presentation of the toolshed

Toolshed (CS2) - >Fear (CR)

The toolshed now elicits a fear response, although it was never directly paired with a wasp sting.

Question 28

US Revaluation

Answer 28

Is the postconditioning presentation of the US at a different level of intensity, thereby subsequently altering the strength of response to the previously conditioned CS.

value or magnitude of the US is being changed.

Depending on whether the US is increased or decreased in strength, this procedure can also be called US inflation or US deflation.

In everyday terms, it seems like what is happening in US revaluation is that the animal has learned to expect the US whenever it sees the CS; the intensity of its response is thus dependent on the animal’s most recent experience with the US.

This interpretation fits well with cognitive explanations of conditioning.

US revaluation can play a role in the development or exacerbation of phobias.

Question 29

US Revaluation of example (of US inflation)

Answer 29

More intense stimuli produce stronger conditioning than do less intense stimuli.

Would changing the intensity or value of the US after the conditioning of a CS also change the strength of response to the CS?

For example, that the sound of a metronome is followed by a small amount of food, with the result that the metronome comes to elicit a small amount of saliva.

Metronome (NS): Small amount of food (US) - >Weak Salivation (UR)

Metronome (CS) - > Weak Salivation (CR)

Once this conditioning has been established, we now present the dog with a large amount of food, which elicits a large amount of saliva.

Large amount of food (US) - > Strong Salivation (UR)

As it turns out, the dog may react to the metronome as though it predicts a large amount of food rather than a small amount of food.

Metronome (CS) -> Strong Salivation (CR)

Note that the metronome was never directly paired with the large amount of food; the intervening experience with the large amount by itself produced the stronger CR of salivation.

Question 30

US Revaluation of example (of US deflation)

Answer 30

Imagine that you salivate profusely when you enter Joe’s Restaurant because you love their turkey gumbo.

You then get a new roommate, who, as it turns out, is a turkey gumbo fanatic and prepares turkey gumbo five times a week.

Needless to say, so much turkey gumbo can become monotonous (an instance of long-term habituation), and you finally reach a point where you have little interest in turkey gumbo.

As a result, when you next enter Joe’s Restaurant, you salivate very little.

The value of turkey gumbo has been markedly reduced in your eyes, which in turn affects your response to the restaurant that has been associated with it.

Question 31

compound stimulus

Answer 31

consists of the simultaneous presentation of two or more individual stimuli (e.g., the sound of a metronome is presented at the same time as a light).

Question 32

Overshadowing

Answer 32

the more salient member of a compound stimulus is more readily conditioned as a CS and thereby interferes with conditioning of the less salient member.

Question 33

Overshadowing example

Answer 33

An experimental example of overshadowing might involve first pairing a compound stimulus, such as a bright light and a faint-sounding metronome, with food.

After several pairings, the compound stimulus becomes a CS that elicits salivation.

However, when each member of the compound is tested separately, the bright light elicits salivation, while the faint metronome elicits little or no salivation.

Step 1: Conditioning of a compound stimulus as a CS. Note that the compound stimulus consists of the simultaneous presentation of the two-bracketed stimuli.

[Bright light + Faint metronome] (NS): Food (US) -> Salivation (UR)

[Bright light + Faint metronome] (CS) - > Salivation (CR)

Step 2: Presentation of each member of the compound separately

Bright light (CS) - > Salivation (CR)

Faint metronome (NS) - > No salivation (—)

Due to the presence of the bright light during the conditioning trials, no conditioning occurred to the faint metronome.

This is not because the faint metronome is unnoticeable.

If it had been paired with the food by itself, it could easily have become an effective CS.

Only in the presence of a more salient stimulus does the less salient stimulus come to elicit little or no response.

Question 34

Blocking

Answer 34

the presence of an established CS during conditioning interferes with conditioning of a new CS.

Blocking is similar to overshadowing, except that the compound consists of a neutral stimulus and a CS rather than two neutral stimuli that differ in salience.

It clearly indicates that mere contiguity between an NS and a US is insufficient to produce conditioning.

Rather, it seems that a more crucial factor in conditioning is the extent to which the NS comes to act as a signal or predictor of the US.

(Tolman would have loved blocking), the act of conditioning can be said to produce an “expectation” that a particular event is about to occur.

Question 35

Blocking example

Answer 35

For example, suppose that a light is first conditioned as a CS for salivation. If the light is then combined with a metronome to form a compound, and this compound is then paired with food, little or no conditioning occurs to the metronome.

Step 1: Conditioning of the light as a CS

Light (NS): Food (US) - > Salivation (UR)
Light (CS) - >Salivation (CR)

Step 2: Several pairings of a compound stimulus consisting of the CS and an NS with the US

Step 3: Presentation of each member of the compound separately; the question at this point is whether conditioning occurred to the metronome

Light (CS) - > Salivation (CR)
Metronome (“NS”) - > No salivation (-)

In step 2, the presence of the light blocked conditioning to the metronome.

An everyday (but overly simplistic) way of thinking about what is happening here is that the light already predicts the food, so the dog pays attention only to the light.

As a result, the metronome does not become an effective CS despite being paired with the food.

When the light is conditioned as a CS, the dog comes to expect that food will follow the light.

Later, when the metronome is presented at the same time as the light, the metronome provides no additional information about when food will occur; hence, no conditioning occurs to it.

Question 36

Occasion Setting

Answer 36

is a procedure in which a stimulus (an occasion setter) signals whether a stimulus is likely to be followed by a US and thereby determines whether that stimulus will act as a CS that elicits a CR.

Two events do not exist in isolation but instead occur within a certain
context. This context often comes to serve as an overall predictor of the relationship between these two events.

Question 37

Occasion Setting example

Answer 37

imagine that Dr. Pavlov’s dogs often see him throughout the day, both during and outside of conditioning trials.

As such, the appearance of Dr. Pavlov is not always followed by food, and the dogs therefore do not salivate when they see him.

Also imagine, however, that during experimental sessions, whenever the dogs hear the sound of a metronome, it is followed by food, but only when Dr. Pavlov is present.

When Dr. Pavlov is absent, the sound of the metronome is not followed by food.

Dr. Pavlov present {Metronome (NS): Food (US) -> Salivation (UR)

Dr. Pavlov absent {Metronome (NS): No food (- )

Dr. Pavlov present (OS) {Metronome (CS): - >Salivation (CR)

Dr. Pavlov absent {Metronome (“NS»): - > No salivation (- )

Dr. Pavlov in this instance is called an occasion setter because his presence predicts the occasions on which the metronome is followed by food.

He himself does not elicit salivation, but his presence controls the extent to which the metronome acts as a CS that elicits salivation.

Question 38

Latent Inhibition

Answer 38

a familiar stimulus is more difficult to condition as a CS than an unfamiliar (novel) stimulus.

Or, stated the other way around, an unfamiliar stimulus is more readily conditioned as a CS than a familiar stimulus.

In the same way that habituation prevents the occurrence of unlearned reflexive responses to redundant stimuli (e.g., a startle response to a repeatedly occurring noise), latent inhibition prevents the development of conditioned responses to redundant stimuli that are coincidentally paired with a US.

Such stimuli are likely to be inconsequential with respect to the conditioning event.

_{Difficulties with latent inhibition (as well as habituation) are evident in people who have schizophrenia. These individuals often have great difficulty attending to relevant stimuli in their environment and are instead distracted by irrelevant stimuli, such as various background noises or people passing nearby. display less latent inhibition than is normal- -that is, they condition more easily to familiar stimuli- indicating that the disorder partly involves an inability to screen out redundant stimuli.}

Question 39

Latent Inhibition example

Answer 39

For example, if a dog has often heard the sound of a metronome prior to it being used in a conditioning experiment, then a standard number of conditioning trials might result in little or no conditioning to the metronome.

Step 1: Stimulus pre-exposure phase in which a metronome is repeatedly presented alone

Metronome (NS) (40 presentations)

Step 2: Conditioning trials in which the pre-exposed metronome is now paired with food

Metronome (NS): Food (US) - >Salivation (UR) (10 trials)

Step 3: Test trial to determine if conditioning has occurred to the metronome

Metronome (NS) - >No salivation (-)

If the dog had not been pre-exposed to the metronome and the metronome had instead been a novel stimulus, then the 10 conditioning trials would have resulted in significant conditioning to the metronome.

Because of the pre-exposure, however, no conditioning occurred.

It will take many more pairings of metronome and food before the metronome will reliably elicit salivation.