Ch. 6 Infancy (0-18 mos) and Toddlerhood (18 mos - 3 yrs)

Question 1

Anger and sadness

Answer 1

From 4 to 6 months and into the 2nd year, angry expressions increase in frequency. As infants become capable of intentional behavior, they want to control their own actuions.Sadness is less frequent than anger.

Question 2

Attachment

Answer 2

An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation. By 2nd nhalf of their first nyear, infants become attched to familiar people.

Question 3

Attachment Q-Sort

Answer 3

A method for assessing the quality of attachment between ages 1 and 4 years through home observations of a variety of attachment-related behaviors.

Question 4

Autonomy Versus Shame And Doubt

Answer 4

Erikson’s stage: Conflict of toddlerhood. toddlers attempt to control themselves and others. Basic trust & autonomy grow out of warm, sensitive parenting. Child who doesn’t emerge with trust or have healthy sense of individual, will have adjustment problems and become adults who have difficlty forming intimate ties.

Question 5

Avoidant Attachment

Answer 5

infants who seem unresponsive to the parent when they are present, are usually not distressed when she leaves, and avoid the parent when they return

Question 6

Basic Emotions

Answer 6

Emotions such as happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust that are universal in humans and other primates and have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival. Babies earliest emotional life consists of 2 arousal states: attraction to pleasant stimuli and withdrawal from unpleasant stimuli.

Question 7

Basic Trust Versus Mistrust

Answer 7

Erikson’s stage: the psychological conflict of infancy, which is resolved positively when the balance of care is sympathetic and loving. The psychological conflict of the first year. Trusting baby is confident. Nontrusting baby withdraws.

Question 8

Biological Basis Of Inhibited Temperament

Answer 8

heart rate, salvia concentration of cortisol, pupil dilation, blood pressure, skin surface temperature are all neurobiological correlates of shyness and sociability

Question 9

Categorical Self

Answer 9

byn end of 2nd year-Classification of the self according to prominent ways in which people differ, such as age, sex, physical characteristics, and goodness and badness. Develops between 18 and 30 months.

Question 10

Compliance

Answer 10

12 and 18 months- Change of behavior in response to an explicit request from another person or group.

Question 11

Cultural Variations

Answer 11

Cross-cultural evidence indicates attachment patterns may have to be interpreted differently in certain cultures.

Question 12

Delay Of Gratification

Answer 12

Bewtween ages 1.5 and 4, children show an increased capacity to wait to eat a treat.waiting for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act

Question 13

Difficult Child

Answer 13

A child whose temperament is characterized by irregular daily routines, slow acceptance of new experiences, and a tendency to react negatively and intensely.

Question 14

Disorganized/Disorientated Attachment

Answer 14

These children exhibit fear of their caretakers confused facial expressions, and a variety of other disorganized attachment behaviors

Question 15

Easy Child

Answer 15

A child whose temperament is characterized by establishment of regular routines in infancy, general cheerfulness, and easy adaptation to new experiences.

Question 16

Effortful Control

Answer 16

the capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response; the self-regulatory dimension of temperment

Question 17

Emotional Self-Regulation

Answer 17

the strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals. Requires effortful control
Caregivers help form child’s self-regulation style by teaching socially approved ways to express emotions.

Question 18

Emotionally Reactive baby

Answer 18

with respect to temperment, babies who are emotionally reactive are more likely to develop later insecure attachemnets.

Question 19

Empathy

Answer 19

Identification with and understanding of another’s situation, feelings, and motives

Question 20

Environmental Influences On Temperament

Answer 20

nutrition, quality of caregiving, cultural variations, gender stereotyping, quality of caregiving

Question 21

Ethological Theory Of Attachment - Bowlby

Answer 21

recognizes the infant’s emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival. Bowlby retained psychoanalytic idea that quality of attachement to caregiver has profound implications for child’s feelins of security.
According to Bowlby, attachment devlops in four phases. He said during these four pahses, children construct an enduring affection for caregiver that they can use during parents absence. This image serves as an Internal Working Model.
1.Preattachment phase-birth-6 weeks- built in signals, grasping, smiling, crying, gazing into parents eyes. Newborns prefer their mothers smell, voice, face, but they are not yet attached to her.
2. Attachment-in-the-making-6 weeks to 6-8 months- infant responds differently to familiar caregiver than a stranger. infant learns their actions affect behavior of those around them, they develop sense of trust.
3. Clear-cut attachement phase-6-8 months to 18months-2 years- Attachement to caregivers is evident. Stranger anxiety occurs.
4. Formation of a reciprocal relationship-18 months to 2 years, and on- Children can negotiate with caregiver using requests and persuasion.

Question 22

Factors That Affect Attachment Security

Answer 22

Early availability of consistent caregiver, quality of caregiving, infant characteristics, family circumstances, parents’ internal working models

Question 23

Family Crcumstances

Answer 23

Family conditions affect children’s attachment securityand later adjustments.

Question 24

Fear

Answer 24

arises in 2nd haldf of first year & into 2nd year. The rise of fear helps keep newly mobile babies in check.Most frequent expression of fear is Stranger Anxiety.

Question 25

Genetic Influences On Temperament

Answer 25

responsible for half of individual differences (environment is also powerful), varies by trait and individual studied

Question 26

Goodness-Of-Fit Model - Thomas & Chess

Answer 26

Thomas and Chess proposed a model that describes how favorable adjustment depends on an effective match between a child’s temperament and the child-rearing environment

Question 27

Happiness

Answer 27

happiness binds parent and baby into warm, supportive relationship that fosters babby’s motor, cognitive & social compentencies.

Question 28

Highly inadequate caregiving

Answer 28

is powerful predictor of disruptions in attachment.

Question 29

Inhibited Children

Answer 29

children who are characteristically shy, fearful, and timid

Question 30

Interactional Synchrony

Answer 30

In western societies, a form of communication in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion and both partners match emotional states, especially positive ones. Culture, vary greatly in the view of sensitivity towards infants. Western society highly value independence, sensitive caregiving follows baby’s lead. In non-Western society, caregiving that keeps baby physically close, dampens emotional expresiveness, and teaches social appropriateness is deemed sensitive because it advances the child’s connectedness to others and promotes human harmony.

Question 31

Internal Working Model

Answer 31

A set of expectations about parents’ availability and responsiveness, generally and in times of stress.

Question 32

Multiple Attachments

Answer 32

Besides mom, babies develop attachement to dads, grandparents, siblings, etc.
Fathers- babies tend to favor mom until 2nd year. When baby is not distressed, they vocalize, smile equally towards mom and dad.
Siblings-throughout childhood, children treat older siblings as attachment figures.

Question 33

Reactivity

Answer 33

The quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention, and motor activity. (Rothbart)

Question 34

Resistant Attachment

Answer 34

Before separation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and often fail to explore

Question 35

Scale Errors

Answer 35

attempting to do things that their body size makes impossible

Question 36

Secure Attachment

Answer 36

Infants use the mother as a home base from which to explore when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened

Question 37

Secure Base

Answer 37

The familiar caregiver as a point from which the baby explores, venturing into the environment and then returning for emotional support.

Question 38

Self Recognition/Self Awareness

Answer 38

identification of the self as a physically unique being. At birth, infants sense they are physically distinct from their surroundings.
First few months- infants distinguish their own visual image from other stimuli, but self-awareness is limited.
By 4 months- infant looks & smile more at video images of others than at video of themselves, indicating they treat others as social partners.
Age 2- self regocnition-identification of self as aphysically unique being is well under way. Child will point to themselves in photo
2.5 years- will reach for sticker placed on top of their head.
3 years- recognize their shadow.

Question 39

Self Awareness-Explicit

Answer 39

in 2nd year, toddler becomes consciously aware of self’s physical features.

Question 40

Self-Conscious Emotions

Answer 40

• humans are capable of a second, higher-order set of feelings. These include: guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride;
• each involves injury to or enhancement of our sense of self
• Occurs between 1.5 & 3 years
• Requires awareness of self as separate & unique
• adults instruct when to feel emotions

Question 41

Self-Regulation

Answer 41

strategies that modify reactivity (controlling emotional responses). (Rothbart)

Question 42

Sensitive Caregiving

Answer 42

responding promptly, consistently, and appropriately to infants and holding them tenderly and carefully
Mother’ of securely attatched babies often refer to infants’ mental state, ie.- saying to baby “you really like that swing”

Question 43

Separation Anxiety

Answer 43

Distress that is sometimes experienced by infants when they are separated from their primary caregivers (clear-cut attachment phase)

Question 44

Sibling influence on temperment

Answer 44

Siblings look to differentiate themselves from siblings

Question 45

Slow-To-Warm-Up Child

Answer 45

A child whose temperament is characterized by inactivity; mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli; negative mood; and slow adjustment to new experiences.

Question 46

Social Referencing

Answer 46

Beginning at 8 to 10 months-actively seeking emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation. (How to act)
Caregivers model response

Question 47

Social Smile; laughter

Answer 47

a smile evoked by a human face, normally evident in infants about 6 weeks after birth. Laughter-typically appears 3-4 months and ref;ects faster processing info than smiling. During 2nd half of year, infants smile & laugh more with familiar people-strenghtens child-parent bond.

Question 48

Stability Of Temperament

Answer 48

Low in infancy and toddlerhood, moderate preschool and on (3- pretty much stable)

Question 49

Strange Situation - Ainsworth

Answer 49

Ainsworth’s method for assessing infant attachment to the mother, based on a series of brief separations and reunions with the mother in a playoom situation

• Secure Attachment- use parent as secure base. May cry, but if they do it’s because they prefer mother over stranger. When mom returns, they seek reassurance and then continue to play.
• Insecure-Avoidant Attachment-infant seems unresponsive to parent when present. They are not upset when mom leaves, they react to stranger the same way as they react to mom. Normally don’t cry.
• Insecure Resistant Attachment- before separation, these infants seek closeness with mom and often fail to explore. When mom leaves,they are distressed and upon mom’s return, they combine clinginess with angery behavior.
• Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment- this pattern shows the greatest insecurity. When mom returns, the infant show confused, contradictory behavior

Question 50

Stranger Anxiety

Answer 50

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age. Temperment plays a part in how or if baby display stranger anxiety. As toddlers develop cognitavely, they become able to discriminate between threating & nonthreating people. Fear also wanes when they acquire more coping strategies.

Question 51

Temperament

Answer 51

Early-emerging and long-lasting individual differences in disposition and in the intensity and especially the quality of emotional reactions. The psychological traits that make up tempermentto form the cornerstone of adult personality.

Question 52

Thomas and Chess - Temperment

Answer 52

Thomas and Chess’s model of temporment inspires all others that followed.3 types: Easy Child-(40% of sample) quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, cheerful, adapts easily to new experiences. Difficult Child-(10% of sample)-is irregular in daily routine. Slow to except new experiencesn and tends to react negatively & intensely. Slowto warm up child-(15% of sample)- is inactive, shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli, is negative in mood and adjusts slowly to new experiences.

Question 53

Temperment- Mary Rothbart

Answer 53

Today, most influential model of temperment

Question 54

Uninhibited Children

Answer 54

children who display positive emotion to and approach novel stimuli

Question 55

Understanding emotions

Answer 55

3 months-sensitive to structure & timing of face to face interactions. 4 to 5 months- infants distinguish between positive & negative emotions in voices.

Question 56

Erickson’s Psychosocial Stages - Eight stages of man

Answer 56

Birth to 1 year: Basic Trusr; Crisis is- Trust versus mistrust In infancy, confronted with first developmental task- establishment of trust in others & in the world around him. The person who had consistent caring, mothering, and nurturing will be able to develop trust. However, the person who has not had good infant experiences will develop instead deep mistrust.

“Birth to 1 year: Basic Trusr; Crisis is- Trust versus mistrust In infancy, confronted with first developmental task- establishment of trust in others & in the world around him. The person who had consistent caring, mothering, and nurturing will be able to develop trust. However, the person who has not had good infant experiences will develop instead deep mistrust.

1 year to 3 years: Autonomy; Crisis- Autinimy versus Doubt. As a toddler, a person must learn to ““stand on own teo feet,”” literally and figuratively. He needs to begin feeling some satisfaction with his own abilities and some faith in capacity to meet others’ expectations of him. If, however, the person is confronted with overwhelming expectations and insufficient opportunities to master his task, he will be full of feelings of doubt, shame, or inferiority instead of stable securityin his own worth.

3 to 6 years: Iniative; Crisis-Initiative versus guilt. As child gets older, a satisfactory comnbination of nature and nurture should encourage him to take initiative in satisfying his curiosity about learning new trhings. Without such supports, however, he may learn instead to feel intense guilt about failures instead of feeling secure enough to keep trying.

6 to puberty: Industry; Crisis-Industry versus inferiority. School age child learns they can win recognition by learning and producing. If he can master the task of the classroom, he will increase his sense of personal competence. If he cannot, he will feel inferior instead.

Adolescence: Identity; Crisis-Identity versus confusion. At adolescence, the maturing person must mastor the tasks involved in answering the age-old question, ““Who am I?”” During these years, people stabilize their feelings about themselves and their world into meaningful whole so they are able to recognize and stand up for who they are and also can set life goals for themselves. The person who hasn’t been able to consolidate his personality during adolescence is left with confusion rather than understanding about own identity and life goals.

Young adult: Intimacy; Crisis-Intimacy versus isolation. In young adulthood, person with stab;e identity is now confronted with task of establishing and maintaining satisfying involvements withother people. the person who isn’t secure in own identity can’t fulfill this task well and is left with a sense of isolation instead of an abiliyy toacheive closeness withothers and to make some commitments to them.

Adulthood: Generativity; Crisis- Generativity versus sef-absorbtion. In adulthood, person’s task focuses on bringing forth and instructing the next generation. Parenthood is one expression of this task, but adults without children are also expected to have interest beyond themselves at this stage in life. The mature adult is able to invest themselves in issues and concerns larger than himself. Without them, he is likely to feel personally impoverished and stagnant.

Old Age: Ego Integrity: Crisis-Integrity versus dispair. Aging person is confronted with task of deciding whether life had meaning and dignity. If they believe this to be so, they gain a sense of personal integration and a feeling of oneness with human communkity. If, however, they become bitter and feel unfulfilled, they will face remaining years with deep despair.