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A&P Lecture Exam 2 > CH 6 > Flashcards

CH 6 Flashcards

1
Q

2 types of bone:

A

cancellous and compact

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2
Q

3 types of cartilage:

A

hyaline, fibro, elastic

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3
Q

Tendons

A

connect skeletal m. to bone

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4
Q

ligaments

A

connect bone to bone

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5
Q

5 functions of the skeletal system:

A 
support
movement
protection
blood cell production
storage
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6
Q

Skeletal System Functions: Support

A
  • supports the body and cradles soft organs
  • bone is the major supporting tissue of the body
  • cartilage provides firm yet flexible support
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7
Q

Skeletal System Functions: Protection

A

protective case for: organs, brain, spinal cord

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8
Q

Skeletal System Functions: Movement

A

bones are levers for skeletal m.

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9
Q

Skeletal System Functions: Storage

A

calcium, phosphorus, and fats stored within bones

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10
Q

Skeletal System Functions: Blood Cell Production

A

Hematopoiesis

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11
Q

most of the bones in the body develop from…

A

hyaline-cartilage model

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12
Q

Cartilage: Hyaline: Chondroblasts

A

produce cartilage matrix

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13
Q

Cartilage: Hyaline: Chondrocytes

A
  • cartilage cells

- sit with lacunae (holes) in the matrix

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14
Q

Cartilage: Hyaline: Cartilage Matrix

A
  • Collagen fibers: provide strength

- Proteoglycans: trap water (water bed)

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15
Q

Articular cartilage DOES NOT contain…

A

perichondrium, blood vessels, or nerves

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16
Q

Hyaline Cartilage: Perichondrium

A

-double-layered CT sheath that surrounds most cartilage

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17
Q

Hyaline Cartilage: Perichondrium: Outer Layer

A

dense irregular CT

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18
Q

Hyaline Cartilage: Perichondrium: Inner Layer

A

more delicate CT that contain chondroblasts

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19
Q

The outer layer of perichondrium contains…

A
  • blood vessels, but they do not enter the cartilage matrix

- nutrients diffuse through the matrix to reach chondrocytes

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20
Q

2 types of cartilage growth:

A

appositional and interstitial

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21
Q

Cartilage Growth: Appositional Growth

A
  • addition of new cartilage matrix on the surface of the cartilage
  • chondroblasts form the inner layer of perichondrium lay down new matrix on the surface of the cartilage
  • once chondroblasts are surrounded by matrix, they develop into chondrocytes in the new layer of cartilage
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22
Q

Bones CANNOT grow…

A

interstitially

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23
Q

Interstitial Growth

A
  • addition of new cartilage matrix from within cartilage

- chondrocytes within the tissue divide and add more matrix between cells increasing the thickness of the cartilage

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24
Q

Bone matrix is made up of…

A

~35% organic and 65% inorganic material by weight

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25
Q

Bone: Organic Material

A
  • collagen provides flexible strength to the matrix

- proteoglycans provide resiliency

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26
Q

Bone: Inorganic (mineral) Material

A

-Hydroxyapatite provides compression (weight-bearing) strength to the matrix

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27
Q

Hydroxyapatite

A
  • calcium phosphate crystal

- hardest substance in the body

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28
Q

Osteoblasts

A
  • produce new matrix

- have an extensive ER, numerous ribosomes, and golgi apparatuses

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29
Q

Osteoblasts produce collagen and…

A

proteoglycans that’re packaged into vesicles by the Golgi apparatus and released from the cell by exocytosis
-also produce matrix vesicles

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30
Q

Ossification

A
  • osteoblasts rest on a preexisting surface, such as cartilage or bone
  • the cell processes of different osteoblasts join together
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31
Q

osteoblasts surround themselves with…

A

bone matrix

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32
Q

once engulfed, the osteoblasts become…

A

osteocytes

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33
Q

Osteocytes come from…

A

osteoblasts

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34
Q

Osteocytes

A
  • mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix

- located in lacunae

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35
Q

Osteocyte cell processes are connected to one another through…

A

canaliculi (tunnel like)

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36
Q

Nutrients and gases pass through…

A

canaliculi and lacunae or pass from cell to cell via gap junctions connecting the cell processes

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37
Q

Osteoclasts

A
  • reabsorb (breakdown) bone
  • large multi-nucleated cells
  • Release H+ to produce an acidic environment that decalcifies the bone matrix
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38
Q

Osteoclasts release…

A

enzymes that digest the protein components of the matrix

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39
Q

Osteoclasts use endocytosis to…

A

take some of the products of resorption into the osteoclast

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40
Q

What are the source of osteoblasts and chondroblasts?

A

OPCs

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41
Q

____ gives rise to more specialized cell types

A

mesenchymal cells

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42
Q

Osteochondral Progenitor Cells (OPCs)

A
  • stem cells that become osteoblasts or chondroblasts

- located in the inner layer of the perichondrium, the inner layer of the periosteum and the endosteum

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43
Q

Osteocytes are derived from…

A

osteoblasts

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44
Q

Osteoclasts are dervied from…

A

redbone marrow and monocytes

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45
Q

Woven Bone

A

fetal form of bone that consists of collagen fibers randomly oriented in many different directions

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46
Q

When is woven bone formed?

A

initially during fetal development and subsequently during the repair of a fracture

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47
Q

Woven bone is remodeled to form…

A
  • lamellar bone

- osteoclasts break down woven bone and osteoblasts build new matrix

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48
Q

Lamellar bone

A

-mature form of bone consisting of collagen fibers oriented parallel to one another, but at an angle to collagen fibers in other lamellae

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49
Q

Lamellar bone is arranged in…

A

thin sheets or layers called lamellae

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50
Q

Cancellous (spongy) bones

A
  • less bone matrix and more space than compact bone

- internal layer is a honeycomb of trabeculae filled with yellow bone marrow

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51
Q

Compact Bone

A
  • more bone matrix and less space than cancellous bone

- external layer of bone

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52
Q

Cancellous bone is covered with…

A
  • a layer of bone membrane called endosteum

- porous in appearance

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53
Q

Trabeculae

A
  • Framework of cancellous bone

- thin rods or plates of interconnecting bone

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54
Q

Trabeculae are oriented along…

A

lines of stress to provide structural strength

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55
Q

What fills the space between trabeculae?

A

bone marrow and blood vessels

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56
Q

Trabecular Structure

A
  • consist of several lamellae

- osteocytes located within lacunae between the lamellae

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57
Q

Each osteocyte is associated with…

A

other osteocytes through canaliculi

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58
Q

How do osteocytes obtain nutrients?

A

through their canaliculi

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59
Q

T/F: Osteoclasts are multinucleated

A

True

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60
Q

Circumferential Lamellae

A

form the outer surface of the compact bones

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61
Q

Concentric Lamellae

A

surround central canals, forming osteons (Haversian system)

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62
Q

Interstitial Lamellae

A

remnants of lamellae left behind after the remodeling process

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63
Q

Osteon

A

modular unit of compact bone

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64
Q

Central Canal

A

canal in the center of the osteon that contains blood vessels

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65
Q

Lacuna

A

space within osteon where osteocytes are located

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66
Q

Concentric Lamellae

A

surround central canals

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67
Q

Canaliculi connect..

A

central canals to osteocytes

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68
Q

Canals within compact bone provide a means for…

A

the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products

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69
Q

Perforating (Volkman’s) Canals

A
  • carry blood vessels to central canals

- run perpendicular to the long axis of the bone

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70
Q

Compact Bone: Circulation: Canaliculi

A

-nutrients are transferred to the osteocytes through the canal system

71
Q

Bone Shapes: Long Bones

A
  • longer than they are wide

- most bones of the upper and lower limbs

72
Q

Example of long bones:

A

femur, ulna, radius, tibia, fibula

73
Q

Bone Shapes: Short Bones

A

-about as wide as they are long

74
Q

Example of short bones:

A

carpals, tarsals

75
Q

Bone Shapes: Flat Bones

A

-relatively thin, flattened shape and are usually curved`

76
Q

Example of flat bones:

A

parietal bone, sternum, scapula, ribs

77
Q

Bone Shapes: Irregular Bones

A

-don’t fit into the other 3 categories

78
Q

Examples of irregular bones:

A

vertebrae, pelvic girdle and facial bones (sphenoid bone)

79
Q

Bone: Structure of a Long Bone: Diaphysis

A
  • tubular shaft that forms the axis of long bones

- composed of compact bone that surrounds the medullary cavity

80
Q

Medullary Cavity

A
  • contains yellow bone marrow

- certain bones also contain red bone marrow

81
Q

Bone: Structure of a Long Bone: Bone Marrow

A

-site of blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)

82
Q

In mature bone, yellow marrow….

A

replaces red marrow in the limbs except for some red marrow in the proximal arm and thigh

83
Q

T/F: Adult bones are primarily made up of red marrow?

A

False, infant/child bones are mostly made up of red marrow and adult bones are made up of yellow marrow

84
Q

Bone: Structure of a Long Bone: Epiphyses

A
  • expanded ends of long bones

- exterior is compact bone and the interior is cancellous bone

85
Q

Bone: Structure of a Long Bone: Joint Surfaces are covered with…

A

articular (hyaline) cartilage

86
Q

Bone: Structure of a Long Bone: Epiphyseal plate

A
  • site of bone growth in length

- becomes the epiphyseal line when all cartilage is replaced with bone

87
Q

Bone: Structure of a Long Bone: Epiphyseal Line

A

Separates the diaphysis from the epiphyses

88
Q

Periosteum

A

-double layer of protective membrane covering the outer surface of bone

89
Q

Periosteum: Outer Fibrous Layer:

A

-dense regular CT, which contains blood vessels and nerves

90
Q

Periosteum: Inner osteogenic layer:

A

osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteochondral progenitor cells

91
Q

Endosteum

A

delicate membrane covering internal surfaces of bone, including cancellous bone

92
Q

Flat bones contain the…

A

inferior framework of cancellous bone sandwiched between 2 layers of compact bone

93
Q

Short and irregular bones have composition…

A

similar to the ends of long bones

94
Q

T/F: compact bone will always be on the outer surface

A

True

95
Q

what surrounds outer layer of the bone?

A

periosteum

96
Q

how does the skeleton form prior to birth?

A

Intra-membranous ossification

97
Q

Intra-membranous ossification

A
  • Formation of bone within a CT membrane

- some skull bones, part of the mandible, and the diaphyses of the clavicles (only forms small # of bones)

98
Q

Endochondral ossification

A
  • formation of bone within cartilage
  • from a hyaline cartilage model
  • 95% of bones are produced this way
  • bones of the base of the skull part of the mandible, the epiphyses of the clavicles, and most of the remaining skeletal system
99
Q

Intra-membranous ossification: Centers of ossification

A
  • areas in the membrane where ossification begins

- gradually expands to form bone by ossifying membrane

100
Q

Intra-membranous Ossification: Fontanels

A
  • Area of membrane between developing skull bones that haven’t been ossified at birth (soft spots)
  • closed by ~2 years of age
101
Q

what is the more common way for the skeleton to develop?

A

endochondral ossification

102
Q

Bone increase in size by…

A
  • appositional growth only (unlike cartilage)

- addition of new bone on the surface of older bone or cartilage

103
Q

Increases in bone length occur at the…

A

epiphyseal plate

104
Q

increase in length results in an increase in…

A

the length of the diaphysis and bony processes

105
Q

growth in length ceases when…

A

the epiphyseal plate becomes ossified and forms the epiphyseal line

106
Q

5 zones of the epiphyseal plate:

A
  1. ) Zone of resting cartilage
  2. ) zone of proliferation
  3. ) zone of hypertrophy
  4. ) zone of calcification
  5. ) ossified bone
107
Q
  1. Zone of resting cartilage
A

contains chondrocytes that do not divide rapidly

108
Q
  1. zone of proliferation
A
  • new cartilage is produced through interstitial cartilage growth
  • chondrocytes divide and form columns of cells
109
Q
  1. zone of hypertrophy
A

the chondrocytes mature and enlarge

110
Q
  1. zone of calcification
A

matrix is calcified and hypertrophied chondrocytes die

111
Q

5.) ossified bone

A

calcified cartilage on the diaphyseal side of the plate replaced by bone

112
Q

where does bone growth take place?

A

at the epiphyseal plate

113
Q

Growth: Articular Cartilage

A
  • interstitial cartilage followed by appositional bone growth
  • results in larger epiphyses and an increase in the size of bones that don’t have epiphyseal plates (short)
114
Q

Growth of Articular Cartilage ceases when…

A

bones reach mature size

115
Q

Articular cartilage lasts…

A

throughout life and does not become ossified

116
Q

Growth: Width: 1.) Appositional bone growth beneath the periosteum increases the…

A

diameter of long bones and the size of other bones

117
Q

Growth: Width: 2.) Osteoblasts from the periosteum…

A

form ridges with grooves between them

118
Q

Growth: Width: 3.) The ridges grow together, converting…

A

the grooves into tunnels filled with concentric lammelae to form osteons

119
Q

Growth: Width: 4.) Osteoblasts from the periosteum lay down…

A

concentric lamellae, which can be remodeled

120
Q

Size and shape of a bone are determined by…

A

genetics, but can be modified and influenced by other factors

121
Q

Growth: Factors: Nutrition

A

-inadequate intake of materials necessary to support chondroblast and osteoblast activities results in decreased cartilage and bone growth

122
Q

Growth: Factors: Hormones

A
  • can increase bone growth and cause closure of the epiphyseal plates
  • testosterone
  • estrogen/progesterone
  • growth hormone
  • parathyroid hormone
  • calcitonin
  • thyroid hormones
123
Q

Lack of calcium, protein and other nutrients during growth and development…

A

can cause bones to be small

124
Q

Growth: Factors: Nutrition: Vitamin D

A
  • Necessary for the normal absorption of calcium from the intestines
  • The body inability to absorb fats in which Vitamin D is soluble can also result in deficiency
125
Q

Insufficient Vitamin D in children:

A

Rickets: a disease resulting from reduced mineralization of the bone matrix; can result in bowed bones and inflammation of joints

126
Q

Osteomalacia

A

adult form of rickets disease

127
Q

Growth hormone increases bone growth by …

A

stimulating interstitial cartilage growth and appositional bone growth

128
Q

Giantism

A
  • abnormally increased height

- results from abnormal cartilage and bone formation at the epiphyseal plates of long bones

129
Q

Thyroid Hormone

A

required in adequate amounts for growth of all tissues

130
Q

Estrogen and Testosterone

A
  • initially stimulate bone growth (burst in growth at puberty when production increases)
  • stimulates closure (ossification) of the epiphyseal plates
131
Q

Females usually stop growing before males because…

A

estrogen causes a quicker closure of the epiphyseal plate than testosterone

132
Q

Bone: Remodeling

A
  • converts woven bone to lamellar bone

- allows bones to change shape, adjust to stress, repair themselves, and regulate blood calcium levels

133
Q

Basic Multicellular Units (BMUs)

A

-assemblies of osteoclasts and osteoblasts that travel through or across the surface of bone removing old matrix and replacing it with new matrix

134
Q

BMUs: 1. Osteoclasts break down…

A

bone matrix, making tunnels in the bone

135
Q

BMUs: 2. Osteoblasts move in and lay down…

A

a layer of bone on the tunnel wall, forming concentric lamellae

136
Q

BMUs: 3. Interstitial lamellae…

A

are remnants of bone not removed by BMUs

137
Q

BMUs: 4. BMU activity renews…

A

the entire skeleton every 10 years

138
Q

When mechanical stress is applied to a bone…

A
  • osteoblast activity is increased in bone tissues

- increases bone density

139
Q

when mechanical stress is reduced under certain conditions such as bed rest…

A
  • osteoclast activity remains normal, while osteoblast activity is reduced
  • bone density may be decreased at an accelerated rate
140
Q

4 classification of bone fractures:

A

open/closed
incomplete/complete
comminuted/impacted
linear/transverse

141
Q

Bones: Fractures: Open or closed

A

whether or not the bone ends penetrate the skin

142
Q

Bones: Fractures: Incomplete of Complete

A

the completeness of the break

143
Q

Bones: Fractures: Comminuted or Impacted

A

the position of the bone ends after the fracture

144
Q

Bones: Fractures: Linear or Transverse

A

the orientation of the bone to the long axis

145
Q

Bones: Fractures: Complete

A

bone broken into at least 2 fragments

146
Q

Bones: Fractures: Incomplete

A

fracture does not extend completely across the bone

147
Q

Bones: Fractures: Comminuted

A

bone breaks in more than 2 pieces

148
Q

Bones: Fractures: Impacted

A

one fragment is driven into the cancellous

149
Q

Bones: Fractures: Transverse

A

occurs at a right angle to the long axis

150
Q

Bones: Fractures: Spiral

A

helical course around the bone

151
Q

Bones: Fractures: Oblique

A

run obliquely to the direction of the long axis

152
Q

4 phases of bone repair

A
  1. hematoma formation
  2. callus formation
  3. callus ossification
  4. bone remodeling
153
Q

Bone Repair: Step 1

A
  • hematoma formation

- blood released from damaged blood vessels forms a hematoma

154
Q

Bone Repair: Step 2

A
  • callus formation

- the internal callus forms between the ends of the bones, and the external callus forms a collar around the break

155
Q

Bone Repair: Step 3

A
  • callus ossification

- woven, cancellous bone replaces the internal and external calluses

156
Q

Bone Repair: Step 4

A
  • bone remodeling

- compact bone replaces woven bone and part of the internal callus is removed, restoring the medullary cavity

157
Q

Bone is the major storage site for…

A

Calcium (Ca2+)

158
Q

Blood Ca2+ levels depend on…

A

movement of calcium into and out of bone

159
Q

Skeletal System: Calcium Homeostasis: Osteoblast Activity

A
  • increases bone density

- increases Ca2+ in bone

160
Q

Skeletal System: Calcium Homeostasis: Osteoclast Activity

A
  • decreases bone density

- decreases Ca2+ in bone

161
Q

What two hormones regulate Ca2+ levels in the blood?

A
  • parathyroid hormone (PTH)

- calcitonin

162
Q

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

A
  • major regulator of blood Ca2+
  • crucial for normal muscle and nervous tissue formation
  • falling blood Ca2+ levels signal the parathyroid gland to release PTH
163
Q

PTH stimulates…

A
  • osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+ into the blood
  • Ca2+ absorption from the small intestines
  • reabsorption of Ca2+ from the urine
164
Q

Calcitonin inhibits…

A

osteoclast activity and decreases Ca2+ within the blood stream
-rising blood Ca2+ levels trigger the thyroid to release calcitonin

165
Q

Calcitonin stimualtes…

A

Calcium salt deposition in bone by decreasing osteoclast activity

166
Q

Osteoblasts remove Ca2+ from…

A

the blood to make bone

167
Q

in the kidneys, PTH increases…

A

Ca2+ reabsorption from urine

168
Q

In the kidneys, PTH promotes formation of…

A

active Vitamin D which increases Ca2+ reabsorption from the small intestine

169
Q

Skeletal system: Aging: Matrix

A

more brittle due to lack of collagen and less hydroxyapatite

170
Q

Skeletal system: Aging: Bone Mass

A
  • overall decrease starts around age 30
  • slower in males
  • may be slowed by adequate nutrition and weight bearing activity
171
Q

Skeletal system: Aging: Cancellous bone loss

A

thinning and loss of trabeculae

172
Q

Skeletal system: Aging: Compact Bone Loss

A

less osteon formation

173
Q

Skeletal system: Aging: Loss of Bone

A
  • increase the risk for fractures
  • causes deformity
  • loss of height
  • pain
  • stiffness
  • loss of teeth

A&P Lecture Exam 2 (8 decks)

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